Assignment范文参考：NGOs in global politics and state sovereignty

Assignment格式范文-全球政治和国家主权中的非政府组织。本文是一篇留学生国际关系专业Assignment格式范文，主要内容是探讨了非政府组织在全球政治中日益增加的影响力，并特别侧重于发展非政府组织的作用以及它们挑战传统国家主权理解的方式。讨论的重点是发展非政府组织，以了解有多少这样的组织发挥了传统上被视为民族国家保护区的作用，直接参与医疗保健、基础设施发展和教育提供。讨论首先着眼于非政府组织在国际发展中日益重要的地位，然后强调这如何导致它们在影响力方面挑战国家提供者。讨论的最后两部分批判性地审视了这一问题，并审查了这些事态发展在多大程度上直接挑战了国家主权，以及在多大程度上应将其视为一个问题。下面就一起来看一下国际关系专业留学生Assignment范文的全部内容。

Introduction 简介

This discussion examines the increasing influence of NGOs in global politics and focuses specifically on the role of development NGOs and the way in which they have challenged traditional understandings of state sovereignty. The discussion focuses on development NGOs in order to understand how many such organisations have taken on roles which were traditionally seen as the preserve of the nation state, being directly involved in healthcare provision, infrastructure development and educational provision. The discussion begins with a look at the increasing importance of NGOs in international development before highlighting how this has then led to them challenging state providers in terms of influence. The final two sections of the discussion cast a critical eye on the issue and examine the extent to which these developments have directly challenged state sovereignty and also the extent to which this should be seen as a problem.

The increased role of NGOs in development 非政府组织在发展中的作用增强

The increasing influence of NGOs in global politics is something which has taken off in the post-war years (Weber 2010). Increasingly, the trend has reached such significant proportions that international relations theorists have argued that many traditional theories of international relations such as realism are now no longer relevant in light of these increasingly important global institutions (Weber 2010). As globalisation has gathered pace, and media coverage has become ever more comprehensive the number of NGOs which now have a truly global reach has grown dramatically (Green 2008). Organisations such as Oxfam now have a comprehensive global reach and an institutional and logistical capability which makes them one of the best equipped organisations in the world (Green 2008). Both Green (2008) and Chang (2003) argue that this professionalisation of what were once small charities run largely by well-meaning volunteers (or frequently religious organisations), has fundamentally changed the capabilities of what these organisations are able to achieve. By logical extension, this enhanced capability therefore, gives such organisations a much greater scope and power which inevitably results in enhanced political power and relevance. A key positive is that such organisations are now able to achieve far more than was ever thought possible less than a century ago. However, the downside for some is that this power is frequently not coupled with democratic accountability and responsibility.

非政府组织在全球政治中的影响力日益增强，这一点在战后几年得到了发展。这种趋势越来越严重，以至于国际关系理论家认为，鉴于这些日益重要的全球机构，许多传统的国际关系理论（如现实主义）现在不再具有相关性。随着全球化步伐加快，媒体报道越来越全面，现在真正具有全球影响力的非政府组织数量急剧增加。像乐施会这样的组织现在拥有全面的全球影响力，以及机构和后勤能力，这使它们成为世界上装备最好的组织之一（绿色2008）。Green和Chang都认为，过去主要由善意志愿者（或经常是宗教组织）经营的小型慈善机构的专业化，从根本上改变了这些组织能够实现的能力。因此，从逻辑上讲，这种增强的能力为此类组织提供了更大的范围和权力，这必然导致政治权力和相关性的增强。一个关键的积极因素是，这样的组织现在能够取得比不到一个世纪前所认为的可能要多得多的成就。然而，对一些人来说，不利的一面是，这种权力往往没有与民主问责制和责任相结合。

Large scale development NGOs and state sovereignty 大规模发展非政府组织与国家主权

The controversial element of large scale development NGOs in relation to state sovereignty comes on those occasions in which NGOs provide services which are traditionally seen as the role of the state. In some cases this is not controversial, for example in developing countries which have experienced a major natural disaster where immediate relief is urgently needed. However, in other cases where NGOs are involved in more long term provision of services, their impact on state sovereignty can be seen as being problematic. Perhaps the main reason for this is that they undermine the relationship between state and citizen and frequently undermine the sovereignty of political institutions (Riddel 2014). Whilst this is done with the best of immediate intentions writers such as Riddel (2014) and Houtzager (2006) have argued that the long term impact of this can be damaging both to the actual conditions in the particular country, but also to the political strength and accountability of the state. The argument goes that by taking over services which the state could provide, NGOs undermine the longer term planning and development of the state and effectively make it reliant on NGOs for service provision. Academics such as Houtzager (2006) argue that the only long term method for sustainable development, revolves around a strong and accountable state with genuine political power, and therefore NGOs which undermine this are in his view damaging to the longer term prospects for developing states.

与国家主权有关的大规模发展非政府组织的争议因素出现在非政府组织提供传统上被视为国家角色的服务的场合。在某些情况下，这没有争议，例如在经历了重大自然灾害的发展中国家，迫切需要立即救济。然而，在非政府组织参与更长期提供服务的其他情况下，它们对国家主权的影响可能被视为是有问题的。可能主要原因是它们破坏了国家和公民之间的关系，并经常破坏政治机构的主权。虽然这是出于最直接的意图，但Riddel和Houtzager等作家认为，这一行为的长期影响可能会损害特定国家的实际情况，也会损害国家的政治实力和问责制。有人认为，非政府组织接管国家可以提供的服务，破坏了国家的长期规划和发展，并有效地使其依赖非政府组织提供服务。Houtzager等学者认为，可持续发展的唯一长期方法是建立一个强大、负责任、拥有真正政治权力的国家，因此，在他看来，破坏这一点的非政府组织损害了发展中国家的长期前景。

A further area in which NGOs are able to undermine state sovereignty, relates to the way in which NGOs are able to undermine the diplomatic positions of sovereign states by addressing problems or issues directly at source (Thakur 2006). For example, a nation state may invoke economic sanctions on a particular state in order to create diplomatic pressure but NGOs are able to bypass this to a certain extent by taking funds direct from citizens and using them in the way they best see fit. By remaining unaccountable to direct state power they are able to challenge the power of the state in numerous ways.

非政府组织能够破坏国家主权的另一个领域涉及非政府组织通过直接从源头解决问题来破坏主权国家外交立场的方式。例如，一个民族国家可能会对一个特定国家实施经济制裁，以制造外交压力，但非政府组织可以在一定程度上绕过这一点，直接从公民那里获得资金，并以他们认为最合适的方式使用。通过不负责任地指挥国家权力，他们能够以多种方式挑战国家权力。

Overall, it can therefore be seen that, in the vast majority of cases NGOs have never directly challenged state sovereignty but by virtue of their contribution towards a variety of issues, they have gradually eroded the role of the state in many areas. Also in some cases it can be seen that large scale NGOs have at times directly challenged the power of the state through the provision of certain services and their sheer size and capability. Broadly speaking however there is no major evidence put forward by any of the writers examined which would suggest that NGOs have directly challenged or undermined state sovereignty. Rather, the picture which emerges points to one in which state sovereignty and power is undermined by global governance institutions and large corporations, and then the gaps are plugged (or attempts are made to plug them) by myriad forms of NGO. This point is also supported by Eimer (2009).

因此，总的来说，可以看出，在绝大多数情况下，非政府组织从未直接挑战过国家主权，但由于它们对各种问题的贡献，它们在许多领域逐渐削弱了国家的作用。此外，在某些情况下，可以看出，大型非政府组织有时通过提供某些服务及其规模和能力直接挑战国家权力。然而，从广义上讲，没有任何被调查的作者提出重大证据表明非政府组织直接挑战或破坏了国家主权。相反，出现的情况表明，国家主权和权力受到全球治理机构和大公司的破坏，然后差距被无数形式的非政府组织填补（或试图填补）。这一点也得到了Eimer的支持。

Critical Reflection 批判性反思

The relationship between the modern political and international landscape and state sovereignty is particularly problematic. The role of supranational institutions such as the United Nations and the EU frequently make the news because of what is seen as their lack of true democratic accountability. However, the arguments made above show how NGOs are also contributing to this challenge on state sovereignty. The extent to which one sees this as a problem, is largely driven by the perspective one takes on the importance of the state as a provider of security and long term support. A key threat of such significant NGO involvement is that in huge numbers of cases the NGO in question is based in a different country to that country which it is attempting to help. This therefore, makes longer term security much harder to obtain from such involvement.

现代政治和国际格局与国家主权之间的关系尤其成问题。联合国和欧盟等超国家机构的作用经常成为新闻，因为它们缺乏真正的民主问责制。然而，上述论点表明，非政府组织如何也在对国家主权的这一挑战作出贡献。人们认为这是一个问题的程度，很大程度上取决于人们对国家作为安全和长期支持提供者的重要性的看法。如此重要的非政府组织参与的一个关键威胁是，在大量情况下，有关非政府组织的总部位于与其试图帮助的国家不同的国家。因此，这使得从这种参与中获得长期安全变得更加困难。

However, in contrast to this view it must also be noted that the vast majority of major NGOs work closely with many governments in attempting to support and develop infrastructures and key provisions (for example health provision) and that the idea that they undermine sovereignty in the state is questionable. This point is highlighted by Eimer (2009) in relation to China with Eimer (2009) highlighting the fact that the Chinese government has actively encouraged growth in the voluntary and NGO sector within China and has even encouraged foreign NGOs to become involved. Eimer (2009 p.1) points out that;

然而，与这一观点相反，还必须指出的是，绝大多数主要非政府组织与许多政府密切合作，试图支持和发展基础设施和关键设施（例如卫生设施），而且认为它们损害国家主权的想法值得怀疑。Eimer在与中国的关系中强调了这一点，Eimer强调了一个事实，即中国政府积极鼓励中国境内志愿和非政府组织部门的发展，甚至鼓励外国非政府组织参与。Eimer指出；

Officials are now actively talking up the role of charities and non-governmental organisations (NGOs), as they hope to harness the newfound enthusiasm amongst the Chinese for giving to charity and volunteering that has appeared since the Sichuan earthquake. Because it has little experience of its own of working with such groups, China plans to use some of Britain’s most famous charities as role models for their own voluntary sector.

官员们现在正在积极讨论慈善机构和非政府组织的作用，因为他们希望利用四川地震以来中国人对慈善和志愿服务的新热情。由于中国自身缺乏与此类团体合作的经验，中国计划利用英国一些最著名的慈善机构作为其志愿服务部门的榜样。

For a country with such a strong government as China to actively introduce NGOs and third sector involvement in the country shows that they do not perceive NGOs to represent a threat to sovereignty. Eimer (2009 p.1) highlights points made by Dr. Wang (the Minister in charge of NGOs in China) as directly looking towards major existing NGOs as examples of what can be achieved, arguing that;

对于一个像中国这样拥有强大政府的国家来说，积极引入非政府组织和第三部门参与国家事务表明，他们并不认为非政府组织对主权构成威胁。Eimer强调了王博士（中国非政府组织主管部长）的观点，认为他直接着眼于现有的主要非政府组织，以此作为可以取得成就的例子，认为：；

Dr. Wang is looking to Britain and charities like Save the Children, which works extensively in China, for examples of how best to boost China’s charity sector. “The way Save the Children operates is a good example for us,” said Dr Wang. “I think we can learn a lot from the UK. For example, the laws relating to charities, the institutions that govern charities and the way they are managed, both large charities and grassroots ones. In the past, charities played a very important role in transforming the UK into a modern society.

王博士希望英国和在中国广泛开展工作的“拯救儿童”等慈善机构能成为推动中国慈善事业发展的最佳范例。王博士说：“拯救儿童组织的运作方式对我们来说是一个很好的例子。”。“我认为我们可以从英国学到很多东西。例如，有关慈善机构的法律、管理慈善机构的机构以及慈善机构的管理方式，包括大型慈善机构和基层慈善机构。过去，慈善机构在将英国转变为现代社会方面发挥了非常重要的作用。

However, it must also be acknowledged here that the Chinese government has such a strong power base that there are virtually no institutions on the planet which could challenge them. That said, it does provide some evidence that NGOs do not necessarily undermine sovereignty even where they have major involvement. Indeed, many such as Green (2008) and Chang (2003) argue that even with well-functioning democratic governments in wealthy states there are still areas in which NGOs can improve life for the majority of people without remotely undermining state sovereignty.

然而，这里也必须承认，中国政府拥有如此强大的权力基础，以至于地球上几乎没有任何机构可以挑战他们。这就是说，它确实提供了一些证据，表明非政府组织不一定会破坏主权，即使它们有重大参与。事实上，格林等许多人认为，即使富裕国家的民主政府运作良好，非政府组织仍然可以在不损害国家主权的情况下改善大多数人的生活。

It is certainly important to acknowledged that the way in which globalisation has changed the world is unlikely to be reversed any time soon, and there is therefore an important question to be asked as to whether NGOs themselves are to blame for declining state power, or whether or not forces such as large corporations, supranational institutions and other similar entities are more to blame. Certainly NGOs have increased their role whilst state sovereignty has undoubtedly declined but this relationship could very well be as much coincidental as it is a correlation. Given the evidence examined above, it would therefore, seem much more plausible to argue that NGOs have not caused a trend of declining state sovereignty but that their increased involvement in plugging important provisions gaps within many countries has undoubtedly contributed or cemented this trend in place. Fundamentally however, it can be argued that this does not represent a significant issue for the majority of states.

当然，必须承认，全球化改变世界的方式不太可能很快扭转，因此，有一个重要的问题需要提出，即国家权力下降是否应归咎于非政府组织本身，或者是否应更多地归咎于大公司、超国家机构和其他类似实体等力量。当然，非政府组织增加了其作用，而国家主权无疑有所下降，但这种关系很可能是巧合，因为它是一种关联。鉴于上述证据，认为非政府组织没有造成国家主权下降的趋势，但它们更多地参与填补许多国家内部的重要规定差距，无疑促成或巩固了这一趋势，似乎更有道理。然而，从根本上说，这对大多数国家来说并不是一个重大问题。

It can therefore be argued, that the rise of NGOs has gone hand in hand with a decline in state sovereignty, particularly in some of the world’s poorest countries but that this decline in state power is unlikely to have been driven by NGOs and is much more likely to have been driven by other international forces. In many ways, the most likely outcome here is that NGOs have stepped in to fill in the gaps in provision, which have been left by the decline of state sovereignty caused by the increased power of institutions such as the World Trade Organisation (WTO), International Monetary Fund (IMF) and major global corporations. This is certainly the view of a number of thinkers including Peet (2003) and Stiglitz (2002).

因此，可以说，非政府组织的兴起与国家主权的下降密切相关，特别是在世界上一些最贫穷的国家，但国家权力的下降不太可能是由非政府组织推动的，更可能是由其他国际力量推动的。在许多方面，最有可能的结果是，非政府组织已经介入，以填补由于世界贸易组织（WTO）、国际货币基金组织（IMF）和主要全球公司等机构的权力增加而导致国家主权下降而留下的条款空白。这当然是包括Peet和Stiglitz在内的许多思想家的观点。

It can therefore be seen, that the evidence and arguments examined above point more to a situation in which NGOs are not directly responsible for the erosion of state sovereignty in many cases but that they have probably indirectly contributed towards it. There is certainly a problematic relationship between many NGOs and many poorer states in the sense that many NGOs have now become so powerful that they are able to support large parts of state infrastructure in many countries (Green 2008). In addition there is strong evidence that many NGOs have intervened in states and have contradicted the power of the state by introducing policies such as supporting women into jobs (unpopular in some countries) and encouraging entrepreneurial behaviour in many other states through the use of microfinance (Smith 2013).

Conclusion 结论

In conclusion, it can therefore be argued, that the rise in power of NGOs has certainly coincided with declining sovereignty in many of the world’s poorest countries and indeed in some of the wealthiest as well. However, the arguments examined above show that to solely blame NGOs for this decline in sovereignty is likely to be wrong. Indeed, much of the evidence suggests that the decline in sovereignty has been pushed much more by organisations such as global corporations and particularly global governance institutions which have comprehensively challenged state power in many institutions. That said, it must also be acknowledged that many of the larger NGOs have evolved into very powerful institutions which have directly challenged state power. To the extent that this trend is likely to continue, it must therefore be acknowledged, that NGOs have contributed to a decline in state sovereignty but also that they are certainly not the root cause of this decline.

References 参考文献

Chang, H-J. (2003). Rethinking Development Economics. London: Anthem Press.

Eimer, D. (2009). China turns to British charities to plug gaps left by communist party. London: The Telegraph. 

Green, D. (2008). From Poverty to Power. London: Oxfam.

Houtzager, P (2006). Changing Paths: International Development And The New Politics Of Inclusion. Michigan:  University of Michigan Press.

Krasner, S. (2001). Problematic Sovereignty: Contested Rules and Political Possibilities. Columbia: Columbia University Press.

Peet, R. (2003). Unholy trinity. Zed Books

Riddel, R. (2014). Does foreign aid really work? An updated assessment. Crawford School of Public Policy: Development Policy Centre.

Smith, B. (2013). Understanding Third World Politics: Theories of Political Change and Development. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Stiglitz, J. (2002). Globalisation and its discontents. London: W.W.Norton.

Thakur, R. (2006). The United Nations, Peace and Security: From Collective Security to the Responsibility to Protect. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Weber, C. (2010). International Relations Theory: A Critical Introduction. London: Routledge.

Assignment范文总结在世界上许多最贫穷的国家，甚至在一些最富有的国家，非政府组织权力的上升肯定与主权的下降同时发生。然而，上述论点表明，将主权的下降完全归咎于非政府组织可能是错误的。事实上，许多证据表明，主权的下降更多地是由全球公司等组织推动的，尤其是全球治理机构，它们全面挑战了许多机构中的国家权力。尽管如此，也必须承认，许多较大的非政府组织已经演变成非常强大的机构，直接挑战国家权力。因此，必须承认，在这种趋势可能持续的程度上，非政府组织促成了国家主权的下降，但它们肯定不是这种下降的根源。本站提供各国各专业Assignment写作指导服务，如有需要可咨询本平台。