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澳洲作业网提供澳大利亚留学生作业指导，指导澳洲ESSAY,本文是澳大利亚昆士兰大学留学生所做的一个国际直销环境评估报告。本文的目的是提供一个国际直销评估方法/方式，从使用的政治，经济，社会和科技（PEST）分析，调查国际直销的经营环境。 Reaching the international consumer An assessment of the international direct marketing environment
UQ Business School, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia, and
Scott Widmier
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to offer an assessment of the international direct marketing
environment.Design/methodology/approach – This paper uses political, economic, social, and technological
(PEST) analysis to investigate the business environment of international direct marketing. Thisframework is commonly used as a way of assessing the context of international marketing.Findings – Globalization, technological innovation, and the spread of free-market governance havecreated new and interesting opportunities for managers who decide to use direct marketing to sell theirproducts overseas.Practical implications – For managers considering international direct marketing, a carefulassessment of market prospects and a thoughtful evaluation of the PEST environment shouldmaximize potential opportunities while minimizing the risks associated with foreign markets.Originality/value – This paper provides an overview of the international direct marketingenvironment and can, therefore, be used by practioners in their efforts to shapes direct marketingstrategy.
Keywords International marketing, Direct marketing
Paper type General review
Introduction
Direct marketing is defined as the use of consumer-direct (CD) channels to reach and
deliver goods and services to customers without using marketing middlemen (Kotler
and Keller, 2006). It allows marketers a more direct response from consumers(generally an order), allows marketers to better target niche markets, and allowsmarketers to sell a product without the expensive and lengthy process of getting it intotraditional channels. Direct marketing also presents many benefits to consumers,including avoiding the hassles of traffic congestion, parking headaches, lack of time,shortage of retail help, and lines at checkout counters. Consumers can browse througha larger selection of products than retail outlets generally carry and price shopThe current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
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Direct Marketing: An International
Journal
Vol. 1 No. 1, 2007
pp. 17-37
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1750-5933#p#分页标题#e#
DOI 10.1108/17505930710734116
by browsing through mail catalogs and online shopping while in the comfort of theirhome or office. These advantages, for both consumers and marketers, alike have leadto the growth of direct marketing in the USA into a multibillion dollar industry,with $2.3 trillion in US sales in 2004, including 5.2 billion in web-driven sales and$143.3 billion in catalog sales (www.the-dma.org/ratecards/listrental.shtml).Direct marketing is not just an American phenomenon, but a worldwide industrywith sales in excess of $101 billion dollars. In 1983, Theodore Levitt(1983) argued thatglobalization was creating an environment in which one should “sell the same thing,the same way, everywhere”. While the veracity of these words has been tempered withtime, the general thrust of a geocentric approach to business is certainly applicable inthe area of direct marketing.The level of direct marketing activities varies fairly significantly from country tocountry with the USA still dominating the industry in terms of dollar amount andnumber of people involved. These variances might be explained by differences in the
political, economic, social, and political technological (PEST) environment. Thesedifferences create a divergence in the methods and techniques used by direct marketerson a country by country basis and are important to understand because, as thisindustry internationalizes, variations in the PEST environment will present challengesto firms operating in multiple country markets.
This paper uses PEST analysis to investigate the business environment ofinternational direct marketing and understand its effect on the international directmarketer. This organizing framework – PEST – is the most commonly used tool for
environmental analysis (Beamish, 1996). Political factors consist of the laws,regulations and governmental policies that facilitate or hinder direct marketing. Theeconomic environment includes macro level economic indicators, such as GDP,
purchasing power parity (PPP), and wealth distribution that can be used in marketselection and macro-segmentation. The social environment includes variables relatedto consumer behavior and cross-cultural communications. Technology involves boththe level of technological and infrastructure development and the breadth of consumeruse of technology. Both can have great impact on the method direct marketers used toreach the consumers.
In this paper, the consequences of each element of the PEST environment aredescribed. After examining the PEST environment in general, several issues specific todirect marketing are explored. The implications of the PEST environment for directmarketing firms are also discussed.
Political environment
National government regulations and laws are a product of the political systems inwhich they originate, the socio-cultural backdrop which precedes those systems, andthe historical circumstances that give rise to political organization. Not only mustbusinesses be able to negotiate their way through a wide variety of regulations andlaws, but they must also understand how those regulations and laws are administered(or not, as the case may be) in country specific situations.Direct marketing is heavily tied to a free-market system and entrepreneurship – theability of individuals to start and maintain moneymaking enterprises. Directmarketing offers individuals a means to achieve financial independence andcareer self-determination with a fairly minimum investment and a great deal ofDMIJpersonal effort. In a world where most natural resources are already spoken for, directmarketing gives people the equivalent of the Oklahoma land rush in the modern age,offering money-producing opportunities for those willing to stake their claim withdirect marketing. In many countries, this is a capitalistic opportunity unparalleled in#p#分页标题#e#
history.
The growth of direct marketing salespeople in many countries has its parallels tothe growth of the middle class in Victorian England or in the USA with itsaccompanying changes in political focus and power. Just as the growth of the middleclass was resisted by the power establishment, the growth of direct marketing may beresisted by governments because of the political changes it might bring about. One
would anticipate this resistance to most often occur in countries run by authoritarianregimes, where individual freedom may threaten the power of the regime.The complex political economy of China is a case in point. Communism, with central
planning at its core, and totalitarianism as its means, is naturally at odds with thecapitalistic opportunity presented by direct marketing. Yet, the Chinese Governmenthas embraced free-markets as a means of achieving economic growth and political
stability. This is why many Westerners were taken off guard when the Chinesegovernment banned direct selling in 1998. Companies such as Avon and Amway, thathad spent the previous decade entering the Chinese market, suddenly found that their
key sales and distribution strategy was undermined by the communist government’scontrol orientation and paranoia concerning perceived threats to its power. Thegovernment claimed that meetings of direct marketers created “weird cults, triads,
superstitious groups, and hooliganism” (Cateora and Graham, 2007, p. 508).
The current regime had reason to feel threatened by the growth of this tool foreconomic freedom. At the time of the ban, an estimated 30 million people participatedin direct selling in China (Wang, 2001). In response, 200,000 people took to the streets –
many of them Avon ladies – and engaged in anti-government rioting. In 2005, Chinalifted the ban on direct sales in China, thereby re-creating an environment which couldhold much promise for firms engaged in direct market. Nu Skin Enterprises, for
example, has set up 150 stand-alone stores across China. In 2004, the firm had sales of$106 million in China. Sales of $150 million were expected for 2006 as a result of thepolicy shift (Lowther, 2005). The paradox of Chinese governance necessarily leads to
fits and starts in terms of economic and political development.In contrast to totalitarian regimes, we could anticipate that governments that
support capitalism would embrace the opportunities that direct marketing presents toits economic growth and prosperity of its citizens. However, even in these countriesdirect marketing may run into political difficulties. One problem is brought on by the
rapid growth of direct marketing in a capitalistic environment. Politicians in the USA,urged on by a public overwhelmed by telemarketing calls, passed legislation creatingthe DNC in March of 2003, thereby limiting direct marketers.
Individual laws may also have an impact on direct marketers as they move fromcountry to country. Laws effecting information availability and access to consumersare of concern.#p#分页标题#e#
Information availabilityOne needed element for direct marketing is information on consumers within themarket. At the simplest level, this can be names, phone numbers, or addresses.Reaching the
internationalconsumer
However, additional information such as demographics, lifestyle, shopping habits, andfinancial data can help the direct marketer further refine the list of targeted consumers,thereby, increasing the closing rate of the direct marketing efforts (and thus reducingcosts). Privacy laws, rules, and conventions can affect the ability of the direct marketerto asses this vital information.
Different views on the issue of privacy, as exemplified by the USA and the Europe,have led to widely divergent policy approaches to establishing and enforcing privacyrights. The US approach to privacy is largely one of self regulation, with sectorallegislation and limited privacy rights granted to the consumer. Because of historicalcircumstance, the US privacy laws are based on efforts to prevent harm from takingplace. The Fair Credit Reporting Act (FCRA) of 1992 was an effort to preventinaccurate information from being used to evaluate individuals who were applying forcredit. This was followed by many other privacy laws, culminating in theGramm-Leach Bliley Act in 1999, which provides limited protection against the saleof private financial information.
In contrast, the European approach begins with the assumption that individualsshould control the information that is associated with their identities. Different lawswere put in place, first by the Council of Europe Convention for the Protection ofIndividuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data in 1981, followedby the Data Protection directive ratified by the EU in 1995. This perceptive has led toa “consumer focused, top-down regulatory model” (www.netcaucus.org/books/privacy2000/Part5.pdf). For example, personal data are to be collected for purposes
which are explicit, specified, and legitimate and may not be further processed in away that is incompatible with the purposes for which it was originally gathered.Moreover, personal data can be processed only if unambiguous consent is given,must be accurate and up to date, and can be kept “no longer than is necessary for thepurposes for which the data were collected” (www.cdt.org/privacy/eudirective/
EU_Directive_.html).
The European Union has enacted the Data Protection initiative designed to protect
the privacy of its citizens by limiting the transmission of information outside of theEuropean Union solely to those countries that meet very specific data protectionrequirements. The EU Data Protection Directive has had an impact on the privacy lawsof numerous countries around the world. It has contributed to a global regulatoryenvironment because EU members are permitted to transfer data to other countriesonly if those countries have adequate levels of protection for personal data. By limitingthe transaction of data to countries which meet their requirements, the EU is extendingits regulatory mandates to the home countries of its trading partners. For example,responding to the EU directive, Canada passed national privacy legislation in 2001(Cain, 2002).#p#分页标题#e#
A number of Asian countries have also followed the European approach, including
India, Thailand, Philippines and Japan (Worlton, 2003). The Japanese Diet ratifiedlegislation in 2003, which required direct marketers who wished to trade or rent data toprovide consumers with an easy way to opt-out of such data sharing arrangements.
The DMA considers this to be an improvement over the previous situation in Japanbecause in that country “something that is not validated by law is generally consideredsuspect at best, if not flat out illegal” (Meyers, 2003).DMIJ
Access to consumers
Laws can limit the access of telemarketers to all or parts of the market within a
country. One controversial example of this is the US “Do-not-Call-List” (DNC)
established by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in March of 2003. According tothis law, consumers can register their names on a national DNC and telemarketers arenot permitted to call anyone on this list. While this afforded many Americans adinnertime free of telemarketing calls, it had some profound positive and negativeeffects on the direct marketing industry making the DNC rather controversial. On the
positive, the DNC rule did force many unethical firms to close their doors while morelegitimate firms had to find new methods of contacting consumers.On the negative, many firms moved their operations overseas or to Puerto Ricowhere the DNC did not apply causing a loss of thousands of jobs in the USA. Thisnegative impact was magnified by the fact that most telemarketing firms in the USAlocated in small towns provided, in many cases, the only decent employment. For firmsoverseas, the DNC list provides a goldmine of verified consumer phone numbers to use
in telemarketing efforts. The negative impact of the DNC rule highlights the problemscreated by not recognizing direct marketing as a worldwide industry. European directmarketers have viewed the American DNC rule mostly in negative terms. Responding
to the US DNC registry, the Federation of European Direct Marketing (FEDMA) tookaction to prevent similar regulations from being adopted in Europe (Arnold, 2004).Despite this move, Telephone Preference Service laws still exist in Europe that are
similar to the US DNC rule. Luxembourg, where direct selling is viewed as an intrusion,
has taken privacy regulations to such extremes that several direct marketers choose
not to do business there. In the UK, there is a legislation against door-to-door selling
and cold calling. Most field sales representatives there must rely upon referrals and
personal relationships in order to gain access to consumers (Ponder, 2005a, b).
Many countries have also enacted laws that allow a “cooling off period” where a
consumer is given several days, seven for most of Europe, in which to withdraw their
purchases with no monetary penalties. In Japan, the Door-to-Door Sales Law allows for
an eight-day “cooling off” period for products valued at more than ¥3,000 (about $25#p#分页标题#e#
US) during which a sales contract may be cancelled without penalty. Exemptions
include consumable goods if the product has been used, as well as automobiles
(Ponder, 2006b).
Ability to recruit and expand
Much of the rapid expansion of direct marketing is fueled by the ability to recruit
part-time salespeople who are seeking to add to their income. One method of quickly
expanding a network is multilevel marketing. This technique is used by companies
such as Avon, Amway, Tupperware, and Nu Skin. Salespeople, in these companies, can
make money either through commissions from selling product or from selling
distributorships to other individuals. Each person in the chain receives a cut of the
commissions obtain from their recruits, on down the line.
Many countries have enacted laws either directly aimed at discouraging this form of
direct marketing or have employment laws making multi-level marketing problematic.
Italy, China, France and Spain laws exist which define what is a full and/or part time
employee along with rules and regulations applying to each (Ponder, 2005a, b, 2006a).
France and Spain requires part time direct marketers to pay social security on
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their earnings. Even more problematic for some direct marketers are regulations in
countries which are aimed directly at limiting multilevel marketing. In China,
legislation against “upline and downline relations” was put in place in December of
2005 and is being fought by direct marketers (Ponder, 2005a, b). Germany has had
strong regulations in place to avoid “snowball” distribution.
The implications of differences in the regulation of privacy and other issues related
to direct marketing suggest that despite the “flattening” of the world, political and legal
challenges will continue to impede direct marketing efforts into the foreseeable future.
The challenge for international direct marketing is to appropriately select countries for
entry where impediments are comparatively low vis-a´-vis potential market outcomes,
and to learn how to work within the constraints of different regulatory regimes.
Ironically, not all laws and regulations are bad for the direct marketing industry. In
India, the growth of direct marketing has been stunted by early scam companies. In
response, the India Direct Selling Association has petitioned the Indian Government to
increase regulation of the direct selling industry (Ponder, 2006c).
Economic environment
The global economy has been portrayed as both “flat” (Friedman, 2005) and “spiky.”
The former characterization, made in Tom Friedman’s bestselling book, The World
is Flat suggests that that “ten flatteners” have leveled the playing field in global#p#分页标题#e#
commerce so that, for example, software engineers in Bangalore can write code as well
as Americans in Silicon Valley. These “flatteners” include large historical changes,
such as the end of communism and the creation of the internet, as well as developments
of lesser importance, like “open source” software and supply-chain management. In
contrast, using some striking visual imagery in the October 2005 issue of The
Atlantic Monthly, Richard Florida asserts that geography still makes a difference in
economic development and innovation. He points out, using quantifiable indicators
such as number of patents, light emissions, and scientific citations, that substantial
economic activity is concentrated in a comparatively small number of locations around
the globe.
It may be that both the authors are largely correct, but are simply handling different
parts of the elephant. In our opinion, globalization should be understood as economic
integration. Direct marketing plays a role as both a facilitator of integration and as a
beneficiary of a more interdependent global economy. The reason for this, is
straightforward. Traditional channels, particularly retail channels, attribute success to
three factors; location, location, and location. The best location is close and convenient
to consumers with the financial ability and desire to purchase the products carried by
the channel. In contrast, direct marketing has no physical location since, by definition,
it is a consumer direct channel. Its location is, wherever a consumer looks at a catalog
or the internet, talks with a field sales representative, or listens to a telemarketing call.
As a result, direct marketing is able to go into areas where traditional channels cannot
reach. What follows is a discussion of the impact the economic environment may have
on direct marketing in developed and developing economies.
Developed economies
Developed economies have the highest per-capita expenditures in the world making
them very attractive to vendors. As a result, developed countries also have the largest
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numbers of marketers offering a dizzying array of products. This can make it very
hard for a marketer to be seen or selected by consumers, thereby requiring fairly
significant expenditures of advertising dollars and a sophisticated approach to the
consumer. In addition, developed economies are well serviced by a rather high density
of retail establishments offering consumers the ability to see, feel, touch, and take home
the product all in one-trip. This is instant gratification that direct marketing just
cannot match.
Despite these challenges, direct marketing has a strong presence in developed
economies. Though direct marketing may not have a great share of consumers’
expenditures, the level of disposable income available in developed countries makes#p#分页标题#e#
this small share respectable in dollar amounts. In addition, higher disposable incomes
allows consumers to pursue hobbies creating niche markets that direct marketing is
uniquely positioned to take advantage of.
The top two direct marketing countries in total sales are developed economies, with
the USA at $29.6 billion and Japan at $27 billion. Other developed countries in the top
ten of direct marketing sales include the UK ($3 billion), Italy ($3 billion), Germany
($2.9 billion), and France ($1.7 billion). Developed and the prosperous parts of
developing nations account for less than 15 percent of the world’s population (World
Federation of Direct Selling Association (www.wfdsa.org/)).
Developing economies
People in developing economies represent over 85 percent of the world’s population.
However, they have much less individual wealth to spend on products making them
less attractive to marketers on a per-person basis. However, as stated previously, direct
marketing by nature is not limited to a location so can make a large population of a
country like China or India profitable through large quantities of small transactions. In
addition, the lower per capita GDP makes developing countries less attractive to
traditional marketers reducing the level of competition in these countries.
The growth of direct marketing in developing countries is aided by high levels of
unemployment as people seek ways to earn additional money or gain added income
security. In Russia, despite the many challenges including a still-developing banking
industry, over 2 million people have become direct sellers and run their own
distributorships (Ponder, 2006a). When Argentina’s monetary crash hit in 1999 and
unemployment climbed into double digits in 2001 and 2002, direct selling grew as
people sought other ways to make a living (Ponder, 2005a, b).
Developing economies lack the retail infrastructure present in developed economies.
As a result, direct marketing has great opportunities to distribute a much wider array
of products. “Latin America doesn’t have a strong retail infrastructure,” said Jane
Garrard, Vice President of Investor and Media Relations for Tupperware.
Tupperware functions as a channel there, selling many products through the same channel.
On the other hand in the US, Tupperware is a brand market and sells primarily only
housewares.” (Ponder, 2005a, b, p. 70).
Many items that traditionally are sold only through retail channels in developed
countries can successfully be distributed through direct marketing in developing
economies.
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Developing economies that are experiencing rapid growth are known as “emerging
markets.” The most important recent economic development in emerging markets is#p#分页标题#e#
the transition of China from a stultified, Marxist regime relying on central planning, to
a free-market authoritarian regime, testing the limits of capitalism under political
repression. China has pursued a gradualist approach to its development. Beginning in
the 1970s, it liberalized prices, developed a stock market, ended collectivized
agriculture and opened up to foreign direct investment. The driving force behind
China’s embrace of capitalism is the need to sustain employment growth for millions of
workers that have previously been employed by state owned enterprises. Today, China
is the second largest economy in the world as measured on the basis of PPP. Despite
this, great disparities exist between regions, with 150 million Chinese living in poverty
(CIA, 2005).
Targeting economies
澳洲作业网提供澳大利亚留学生作业指导.For direct marketing firms that wish to expand into international markets, basic
demographic data is key to properly selecting country markets and accurately
segmenting consumers. Table I provides information on population, GDP and PPP.
Fundamental to market selection and segmentation is the identification of groups of
consumers that possess disposable income. Macroeconomic indicators are a starting
place in the effort to identify these consumers. Gross domestic income is an aggregate
measure of products and services produced by a nation over a period of time. Even
though it is a blunt measure of wealth, it is available for almost all countries in the
world and can be used for simple comparative purposes. PPP is used to take into
account difference is prices by measuring a “bundle” of goods and services as
denominated in local currencies. With a GDP of $2,228,862, China is a less attractive
market than either Japan or Germany. However, on a PPP basis, China moves to second
place. Using PPP per capita a different picture emerges. The countries where
consumers have the greatest purchasing power on a per capita basis include in order,
Luxembourg, Bermuda, USA, Norway and Liechtenstein.
Deregulation, economic liberalization and global interdependence bode well for the
future international direct marketing. For direct marketers, the challenge is to identify
high-growth economies that are politically stable and are not overrun with competitors.
Emerging markets may provide the greatest opportunities for international direct
marketing. According to an A.T. Kearney Inc. report, “If things go right, in less than 40
years the BRIC economies together could be larger than the G6 [Britain, Farnce,
Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United States] in US dollar terms.” The report states
that consumer spending hits a “sweet spot” when per capita income exceeds $3,000 per#p#分页标题#e#
year. Russia is already there and China and Brazil, followed by India, may reach this
level in little over a decade (A.T. Kearney Inc., 2006a).
In addition to the emergence of attractive consumers in emerging markets,
developing countries remain attractive as resource-seeking foreign direct investment
locations. Wage inflation and the entry of newer, low-cost countries into the inventory
of possible outsourcing locations, is increasing the flexibility of direct marketers that
may wish to move contact centers, back-office processing or other operations, overseas.
Table II lists the top ten locations for services outsourcing based on financial structure,
skills availability and business environment. The combination of low wages and high
skill levels make India, by far, the leading services location. Even so, the persistence of
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Population (Millions)
Gross domestic income
(millions of US dollars)
Purchasing power parity GNI
(millions of international
dollars)
Gross domestic income
per capita (US dollars)
Purchasing power
parity per capita
1 China 1,304,500 USA 12,455,068 USA 12,409,465 Luxembourg 65,630 Luxembourg 65,340
2 India 1,094,583 Japan 4,505,912 China 8,572,666 Norway 59,590 Bermuda a
3 USA 296,497 Germany 2,781,900 Japan 3,943,754 Switzerland 54,930 USA 41,950
4 Indonesia 220,558 China 2,228,862 India 3,815,553 Bermuda a Norway 40,420
5 Brazil 188,405 United Kingdom 2,192,553 Germany 2,417,537 Denmark 47,390 Liechtenstein a
6 Pakistan 155,772 France 2,110,185 United Kingdom 1,926,809 Iceland 46,320 Switzerland 37,080
7 Russian Federation 143,151 Italy 1,723,044 France 1,829,559 USA 43,740 Channel Islands a
8 Bangladesh 141,822 Spain 1,123,691 Italy 1,667,753 Liechtensein a Iceland 34,760
9 Nigeria 131,530 Canada 1,115,192 Brazil 1,627,262 Sweden 41,060 Ireland 34,720
10 Japan 127,956 Brazil 794,098 Russian Federation 1,559,934 Ireland 40,150 Hong Kong 34,670
11 Mexico 103,089 South Korea 787,624 Spain 1,133,539 Japan 38,980 Denmark 33,570
12 Philippines 83,054 India 785,468 Canada 1,061,236 United Kingdom 37,600 Austria 33,140
Notes: World Development Indicators database, World Bank, July 1 2006; a data not available for 2005
Table I.
Population, GNP,
purchasing power parity
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burdensome regulation and poor infrastructure are holding the nation back.
Nonetheless, good language and IT skills make India the most attractive location for
outsourcing direct marketing activities (A.T. Kearney Inc., 2006b). As a result, direct
selling in India has experienced a 15-20 percent annual growth for the past five years
(Ponder, 2006c).
Social environment
The importance of social considerations is tremendous for marketers intending to use#p#分页标题#e#
direct marketing in an international context. Iyer and Hill (1996) argue that factors
such as efficient overnight international delivery and improved electronic payment
systems have created a marketplace environment that facilitates international trade,
by extension, international direct marketing. Evidently, international direct marketing
is crossing social boundaries. Here, we examine an aspect of society, namely culture,
and how cross-cultural considerations must be accounted for in international direct
marketing. Cultural concerns in the delivery of direct marketing messages may include
the appropriateness of language used, greetings and salutations, appearance and
presentation of marketing materials, and the appropriateness of various different
forms of direct marketing.
Whether it is presented in printed form or verbally, language is arguably a primary
concern for all direct marketers. When attempting cross-cultural marketing, the use of
local language may assist marketers in gaining credibility and building rapport in a
foreign environment. However, this is a complicated task and miscommunication often
has devastating consequences. It is dangerous to assume that, following a simple direct
translation, a message generated for one audience will be appropriate for use in a
country whose primary language differs. Two common errors occur here. First, the
direct translation may not make sense. Second, despite an accurate translation the
message may be culturally insensitive or inappropriate for the cross-cultural audience;
it may need additional “tweaking.”
Many classic examples of poorly translated marketing messages exist. For example,
one Romanian firm produced a beautiful, four color, 12 page pamphlet for use at trade
shows. The first sentence reads, “ELSID S.A. was set up in 1984 through brings into
operation the production capacity of calcinated petroleum coke and beginning on 1985
Rank Country Total Score
1 India 6.87
2 China 6.14
3 Malaysia 6.07
4 Philippines 5.78
5 Singapore 5.73
6 Thailand 5.72
7 Czech Republic 5.58
8 Chile 5.58
9 Canada 5.52
10 Brazil 5.50
Source: A.T. Kearney Inc. (2005)
Table II.
Services location index
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the production capacity of graphite electrodes, which [sic] is using in arc furnaces from
metallurgy.” You can imagine that this brochure did not improve sales!
Sometimes issues with language are not due to translation problems, but may
simply be attributed to the fact that a perfectly acceptable company name or slogan in
one country reads differently in another. For example, the Italian maker of battery
chargers, Powergen, developed a web site to facilitate international marketing of its
products. Italians may be used to a company name followed by “Italia” to indicate the#p#分页标题#e#
company’s Italian origin. However, the company’s web site URL, www.powergenitalia.
com, caused English-speaking users to be concerned that the web site may, in fact,
have been an adults-only site. Powergen has since changed its URL.
There are, however, positive examples where international direct marketing has
successfully crossed a cultural divide. In Australia, in 2006, the US owned Domino’s hit
the spot with a successful marketing campaign for their new roast beef and bacon
flavored pizza. Flyers in letterboxes around the country read, “Unleash the bloke
within . . . Domino’s Roast Beef Special.” This slogan successfully conveyed the
message that the new pizza flavor is manly, since it contains a larger serve of meat
than other pizza flavors. The term “bloke” is a uniquely Australian way of referring to
a man. It is used with affection down under, but would be relatively meaningless
throughout the rest of the world. Here, we see that an international corporation, with
outlets in more than 50 countries worldwide, has very successfully reached the hearts
of its Australian segment via the use of culturally suitable language.
Appropriate greetings and salutations have also been identified as language issues
to be considered when engaging in international direct marketing. Despite two
different countries having the same primary language, and perhaps even being
geographically close, cultural differences such as socio-economic class structure and
method of governance may result in a tendency for the audience of potential consumers
to prefer to be addressed in a particular manner. Graves (1997) illustrates this point via
an analysis comparing American and Canadian direct marketing letters. Graves states
that culturally sensitive marketing can be complex and requires more than, for
example, “replacing the White Sox with the Blue Jays in references.” He argues that
cultural considerations such as the relatively small power distance between social
classes in the US manifest in direct marketing being worded in such a way as to reduce
the power distance between the consumer and the company. As such, direct marketing
letters (e.g. invitations to join a credit card company) in the USA typically begin with
“Dear Friend” and are worded to assert that “the receiver is virtuous, similar to the
sender, or deserving of some reward” (Graves, 1997, 243). In contrast, direct marketing
letters targeting a Canadian audience are more likely to acknowledge the power
distance that exists in Canada: “The tone is less informal and less likely to attempt to
establish a relationship between sender and receiver based on anything other than the
business being transacted” (Graves, 1997, 244).
Graves’ (1997) comparison of American and Canadian direct marketing letters also#p#分页标题#e#
revealed interesting differences in the presentation of marketing materials –
differences that were tied to cultural differences between the countries. Political letters
directed to Americans were presented on what appeared to be personal writing paper
and were typewritten using a less formal font. Canadians, however, received political
letters printed on letterhead with features suggestive of bureaucracy and formality.
Graves argues that these differences were underpinned by the relatively strong
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segregation of marketer from consumer in Canada compared to the US Anecdotal
evidence suggests that Australian direct marketing letters tend to align with the US
manner of address and presentation, however, research evidence is not currently
available to support this contention.
Differences in presentation of marketing materials across different cultural contexts
may also have to do with the actual method of direct marketing used. For example, the
US direct marketers are more likely to reach their audience via the internet, compared
to European direct marketers. In 1996, use of the internet in Europe was three to four
times smaller than in the USA, however, that gap is rapidly closing (Eder, 1996).
Despite the fact that direct marketing has been used in Western Europe longer than in
the USA (Iyer and Hill, 1996), the USA also uses more frequent database marketing
than Europe (Eder, 1996). According to Eder (1996), international direct marketing
within the European Union is complicated by different countries having various local
rules, languages and laws. Sweden, France, and Germany are most restrictive with
respect to data protection laws. However, these three countries, along with the UK,
Austria, and Switzerland, are considered to robustly employ direct marketing methods.
Eder argues that the highly developed mail delivery service in these countries
facilitates direct marketing for mail order businesses.
Contextual differences between various countries in Europe also play a role in
determining the European countries to which the US international direct marketing is
targeted. For example, before the introduction of the Euro, the US direct marketers
tended to be concerned about the ease of converting European currencies into the US
dollar amounts. As a result, the US companies were more likely to target direct
marketing to those European countries where credit cards were more frequently used
(Iyer and Hill, 1996). Prevalence of credit card use appears to have, in the past, been a
determinant of direct marketing within the domestic the US market also. Researchers
have suggested that the US direct marketing traditionally paid little attention to the
Hispanic population which was previously perceived as “lacking in credit instruments”#p#分页标题#e#
(Korgaonkar et al., 2000).
The meaning of friendship in different cultures also plays a pivotal role in
determining the cultural appropriateness of various methods of direct marketing
across different countries. What is considered acceptable in one country may be
offensive and brash in another. The US-based cosmetics company, Avon, has ventured
beyond the domestic market and found success in certain foreign countries. In
Australia and Mexico, Avon’s success may be attributed to the fact that locals welcome
the home calls of sales representatives as an opportunity to socialize. In Japan, a
cosmetics sales representative can be very successful selling directly to friends,
relatives, and neighbors (Laidler, 1996). In contrast, the pyramid selling schemes and
home visits are considered intrusive and insincere in Europe, where selling to friends
for the purpose of generating profit is offensive. Moreover, as previously described,
China in the late 1990s, banned Avon, Amway, and Mary Kay from direct selling
because “the Chinese public was insufficiently mature to detect fake products or
scams” (Living with your landlord, 1998).
Although the selection of appropriate media is one of the most important decisions
to be made when planning international direct marketing (Dillon, 1976; Iyer and Hill,
1996), significant differences are rarely seen in terms of the popularity of various print
media. For example, catalogs, magazines, and brochures are the top three printed
DMIJ
forms of direct marketing in both the US and the Europe, while flyers and newspapers
have lesser popularity in both regions (Iyer and Hill, 1996). Direct mail-outs are also
gaining popularity in China, where production costs such as labor and materials are
relatively low, compared to traditional forms of advertising which are expensive in
Asia. The popularity of direct mail advertisements in China may also be attributed to
the country’s cheap and efficient postal system.
Similarities and differences
Perhaps, an obvious question is whether to assimilate or diversify when planning a
direct marketing campaign that will cross cultural boundaries. Some researchers argue
that the very nature of international direct marketing promotes standardization in
order to benefit from the similarities across consumers from different nations (Levitt,
1983; Ohmae, 1985), while others literally say “No way!” (Eder, 1996, p. 48). Possibly
the key to resolving this debate is to acknowledge that the direct marketing of certain
product categories is differentially affected by culture. For example, it seems that
Coca-Cola is accepted worldwide. The Coca-Cola Company exemplifies the geocentric,
or standardized, approach to marketing because it makes only minor adjustments to its
marketing mix to suit local regions. In contrast, when the Mattel Company markets#p#分页标题#e#
their famous Barbie doll worldwide, they are forced to adapt to local markets. Now
selling in at least 140 countries worldwide, the Barbie product as well and its
associated marketing have been altered to represent “more than thirty nationalities
with at least forty different career personas” (MacDougall, 2003, p. 257). In Japan,
Barbie has brown eyes, darker hair, and a less sexual body than the original Barbie
designed for the American market. In India, the original Barbie is marketed, but the
Ken doll does not sell because open courtship is frowned upon in Indian culture.
The marketing of soft drinks and fast food by Coca-Cola and McDonald’s,
respectively, may be successfully standardized because these product categories are
more or less universally accepted; drinks and food satisfy basic human needs and are
relatively unobjectionable (Maslow, 1970). Barbie dolls, on the other hand, carry
various cultural meanings. For example, they are often considered to represent the
most coveted body shape and features in a particular culture. Barbie and Ken dolls
may also provide children with symbols of the accepted conception of a romantic
relationship within a culture (MacDougall, 2003). Compared to soft drinks and fast
food, Barbie and Ken dolls may, therefore be considered as objects that are “loaded”
with cultural connotations. The key to successful cross-cultural marketing is to
standardize the design of international direct marketing only when the product
category is relatively universal in its meaning. Standardization of international
marketing in that context may be beneficial in terms of reducing production time and
associated costs. However, the success of international direct marketing of “culturally
loaded” products may rely on carefully tailoring the marketing message to suit
individual local markets and thereby avoiding offence to consumers.
Technological environment
Direct marketing is defined as the use of CD channels to reach and deliver goods and
services to customers without using marketing middlemen (Kotler and Keller, 2006).
The variety of channels used for direct marketing in the USA, continues to grow in
response to competitive, customer, and regulatory pressures encompassing the
Reaching the
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29
technologically dependent channels such as interactive TV, the internet, and mobile
devices. Overseas, however, available technology can impact direct marketing in two
ways:
(1) availability of channel; and
(2) consumer expectations.
Availability of channels
The level of technology of a country or region can have a great impact on what direct
marketing channels are available for use. The least technologically dependant method
of direct marketing is the field sales call. Avon, a leader in the field of door-to-door#p#分页标题#e#
sales, has had a great success in moving into international markets moving into many
technologically undeveloped portions of the globe with its sales force in 26 developing
countries (Wall Street Journal, 2003).
Amway corporation, operating in 42 countries, has also experienced great success
with the door-to-door method of direct marketing (Foster, 2003) profitably expanding
into Latin America and Asia (Chang, 2003). In Eastern Europe, where many people are
looking for ways to become entrepreneurial, Amway’s door-to-door sales methods have
proven to be very successful. In the Czech Republic, Amway Corporation signed up
25,000 Czechs as distributors and sold 40,000 starter kits at $83 each in its first two
weeks of business (Foster, 2003).
Utilizing direct mail and catalogs for direct marketing requires an efficient postal
system and effective system for shipping products. For full efficiency, access to a
mailing address list and an inbound telemarketing operation is needed. Some catalog
companies have found unique solutions to distributing catalogs. For example, Shop
America who teamed up with Seven-Eleven Japan to distribute catalogs in its 4,000
stores (Cateora and Graham, 2005). In short, direct mail is a viable medium in an
increasing number of countries.
Telemarketing requires a reliable telephone infrastructure, large numbers of
subscribers, and easily obtained directories. Until the advent of the DNC in the USA in
2004, telemarketing was a good method for direct marketing with 672 out of 1,000
people having telephone lines (Table III) giving coverage of 67 percent. Other countries
pose challenges due to a relatively poor landline infrastructure. India has only 45 lines
per 1,000 people, Indonesia has 57 lines per 1,000, and South Africa has 99 lines per
1,000 (Table III). This means that direct marketers can contact only 4.5 percent of the
population in India, 5.7 percent in Indonesia, and 9.9 percent in South Africa.
Many developing countries are leapfrogging telephone technology and going
directly into cell-phone technology. In 1999, Hong Kong and Korea were the first to
have more wireless subscribers than landlines. Malaysia, New Zealand, Singapore and
Taiwan achieved that in 2000 (Table III). In the Asian region, the wireless market
surpassed the landline market in 2002 and widened the gap in 2003-2004. The number
of wireless subscribers increased 21.5 percent to 632.6 million in 2004, while the
landline market increased 11.8 percent to 515.1 million (Wallace, 2005).
The primary reason that wireless outnumbering landlines are that wireless requires
a less expensive and easier to build infrastructure of towers as opposed to the expense
and effort that goes into traditional land-lines. This leapfrog process presents problems
for direct marketers wanting to use outbound telemarketing since wireless phone#p#分页标题#e#
providers may charge customers both for outgoing and incoming calls. The direct
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30
PC’s Cars Phones TV
PC households
(number per 0000
people)
Internet users
(number per
0000 people)
Passenger cars in
use (number per
0000 people)
Proportion of paved
roads (percentage of
total road network)
Teleph lines
(number per
0000 people)
Mobile telephones
(number per 0000
people)
Color TV
households
(number per 0000
people)
Argentina 104 178 127 30 233 586 255
Australia 621 697 539 47 567 912 343
Belgium 249 419 466 79 461 908 424
Brazil 122 154 103 10 234 475 255
Canada 495 659 472 567 515 369
Chile 152 289 85 21 213 655 173
Colombia 63 117 38 15 172 482 231
Czech
Republic 219 602 384 100 316 1155 339
Ecuador 45 62 41 19 128 470 143
Estonia 534 367 27 329 1075 369
Finland 470 642 457 64 406 1002 457
France 397 472 502 100 592 797 399
Germany 496 455 557 100 666 958 463
Guatemala 25 81 8 38 88 256
Hong Kong 487 536 58 100 539 1227 309
Hungary 139 321 287 44 333 925 339
India 15 47 9 39 45 70 69
Indonesia 17 101 17 47 57 209 140
Italy 277 557 25 100 429 1226 382
Japan 430 516 445 80 460 741 378
Korea 588 701 246 80 502 810 343
Lithuania 165 358 400 89 235 1278 305
Malaysia 240 414 232 81 167 749 193
Mexico 137 160 139 36 185 449 212
Netherlands 531 662 448 90 465 968 429
(continued)
Table III.
Use of technology by
country
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PC’s Cars Phones TV
PC households
(number per 0000
people)
Internet users
(number per
0000 people)
Passenger cars in
use (number per
0000 people)
Proportion of paved
roads (percentage of
total road network)
Teleph lines
(number per
0000 people)
Mobile telephones
(number per 0000
people)
Color TV
households
(number per 0000
people)
New
Zealand 461 830 669 66 448 877 371
Norway 574 417 440 79 462 1032 415
Panama 46 109 76 41 137 275
Poland 163 265 325 71 323 759 309
Portugal 163 304 406 86 404 1091 361
Russia 155 166 174 69 283 847 285
Singapore 841 720 123 100 524 1245 287
Slovenia 360 516 462 100 408 880 324
South
Africa 94 82 83 21 99 638 171
Spain 253 399 492 99 448 1011 368
Sweden 680 789 461 80 716 1136 455
Switzerland 775 500 529 698 933 436
Taiwan 465 558 245 96 599 975 313
Thailand 61 130 82 1 114 261 236
Turkey 60 186 68 67 261 599 144
Ukraine 28 126 120 97 259 367 338
United
Kingdom 449 687 512 42 564 1061 418
USA 728 619 479 59 672 704 387#p#分页标题#e#
Uruguay 164 230 155 90 290 284
Source: The World Bank, (2006)
Table III.
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32
marketer risks alienating customers by costing them money for the telemarketing calls
(Kirby, 2004).
Wireless, specifically cell-phone technology, also presents wonderful opportunities
for direct marketing. Cell-phones not only handle voice calls but they also have the
ability to receive text messages all the way up to full multimedia presentations. In
Poland, for instance, messages from local retailers scan across cell-phone screens
enticing them into the stores (Wood, 2005). This ability makes cell-phones an ideal and
rich one-to-one marketing tool. However, lawmakers are exploring laws to protect
consumers from a deluge of marketing on intended for cell-phones (Kirby, 2004).
Direct marketing by television includes advertisements run during regular
programming that provide an inbound telemarketing number for the benefit of
interested viewers. It also includes dedicated shopping channels such as the home
shopping network (HSN) which operates in the USA. These channels provide an
unending series of products for sale displayed by a star or salesperson. A sense of
urgency is created by the limited quantity available as shown by a countdown timer. In
addition, viewers who call to purchase an item may be interviewed live on television.
These channels require widespread ownership of televisions along some sort of
broadcast infrastructure, as well as access to telephones for in-bound telemarketing.
In countries where penetration of television is not extensive or a direct marketer
wants to reach an alternative market, radio may offer a non-visual alternative. In some
countries, the USA, South Africa (Africa News, 2006) and Ireland (Oliver, 2006) the
percentage of radio listeners is relatively high but experiencing maturity if not some
signs of decline. New technology such as Ipods, podcasts, and other MP3 technology is
cutting into radio’s share of the at home and commuter listeners. However, in Asia
radio is quickly coming out of the shadow of television and other media. The rise of
automobile ownership and the increase of mobile phones that can receive radio have
lead to this increase in listeners (Bowman, 2004).
Usage of the world wide web for direct marketing has blossomed in the USA due to
its richness and speed as well as the number of people who use the internet. The web is
on and able to take orders 24 hours 7 days a week from any location worldwide,
making it a relatively inexpensive alternative for direct marketers wanting to go
abroad. web pages can be set up to customize themselves based upon the shopper’s
input, while at the same time providing the direct marketer a wealth of data. The reach
of the internet is very good in a number of countries including the USA, Australia,#p#分页标题#e#
Canada, Czech Republic, Finland, Korea, Singapore, Sweden, and the UK (Table III). In
New Zealand, 830 out of 1,000 people use the internet (83 percent of the population)!
Reach is rather poor in several developing countries such as Ecuador, Guatemala,
Indonesia, Panama, and South Africa. In India, only 47 out of 1,000 people (4.7 percent)
of the population are internet-users making the internet less attractive to direct
marketers.
Consumer expectations
The level of technology within a country can influence the expectations customers
have of direct marketing, which in turn can directly affect media chosen, products sold,
and message used. There are two categories of customer expectations; interactivity and
immediacy.
Reaching the
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33
The first category is the level of interactivity of the direct marketing channel, which
includes the ability to experience or sample the product and the customizability of the
shopping experience. Field sales calls have the highest level of interactivity of any of
the direct marketing channels. Avon salespeople customize the makeup products
offered to direct observation of the prospect’s skin type and complexion. The customer
can sample the product and see how the product satisfies his or her needs before
purchasing. This interactivity continues to be a driver for the success of field sales
companies such as Avon and Amway (Foster, 2003).
The internet also interacts with customers. Direct marketers can customize the
content seen by prospects through the use of profiles, clicking behavior, and other
similar data. Customers can interact with the computer to see products in three
dimensions, change color choice on the product, and watch film clips of the product all
depending on their needs and choice. As use of the internet goes up, the use and
preference for non-interactive forms of direct marketing, such as catalogs, may decline.
The second category is the immediacy of the direct marketing experience, including
the speed by which the purchase is made and the product received. In some countries,
such as the USA, if people want products today they can simply climb into their car
and drive to a variety of retail establishments and have the product the same day. Cars
are used by 479 out of 1,000 people and over 50 percent of the roads are paved in the
USA (Table III). Thus, direct marketers must offer easy shopping with fast delivery in
order to compete with retail establishments. In other countries, such as India where
nine out of 1,000 people (less than 1 percent) use a car, direct marketing is a speedier
method to purchase products. Consumers in these markets may find their range of
澳洲作业网提供澳大利亚留学生作业指导#p#分页标题#e#retail options is limited by where public transportation or their feet can take them.
Conclusion
In this paper, we used the PEST framework to analyze the international direct
marketing environment. We described some of the major legal and regulatory issues
facing direct marketers, as wells as matters related to cross-cultural communication
and technology. Firms that engage in international direct marketing should make use
of the PEST framework for the purpose of market selection as well as for strategic
decision making while operating in overseas markets. The PEST environment is not
static, and it has both a direct and an indirect impact on firm opportunities and firm
performance.
James Barnett, the former Vice President of the Goodyear Tire and Rubber
Company, has stated that that when you think of the global economy you should think
of the word “complexity”. Firms, whether large are small, must make their way
through a thicket of complicated issues if they wish to succeed in doing business
overseas. Yet, the challenge is often worth the trouble because opportunities in
international markets are enormous; this is especially the case for firms that bypass
traditional distribution channels and market their products directly to their customers.
Emerging markets should be particularly attractive to direct marketers. The
GlobalEDGE resource web site and Michigan State University produces an index of
market potential indicators which shows which countries are the most attractive for
market entry. The 24 countries listed in the index include emerging markets in Asia
(i.e. China, South Korea, and India), Eastern Europe (Czech Republic and Poland) and
South America (Mexico, Brazil, and Argentina). These countries have high rates of
DMIJ
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34
growth and therefore have a high level of market potential. However, many emerging
economies also court a great deal of risk for international firms. For example,
Venezuela, Columbia and Indonesia are included in the 24-country index even though
each presents unique and difficult challenges in terms of political, financial and
economic risk. The applicability of such risk to particular international firms can be
readily assessed using the PEST framework. We recommend that direct marketers
actively pursue opportunities in foreign markets, but only after thoroughly assessing
the potential benefits and possible costs that those opportunities present.
Globalization, technological innovation, and the spread of free-market governance
has created new and interesting opportunities for managers who decide to use direct
marketing to sell their products overseas. For managers, considering international
direct marketing, a careful assessment of market prospects and a thoughtful evaluation
of the PEST environment should maximize potential opportunities while minimizing#p#分页标题#e#
the risks associated with foreign markets.
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Corresponding author
Timothy J. Wilkinson can be contacted at: [email protected]
Reaching the
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consumer
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