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指导英国coursework-英国coursework写作,Project Management and Ethics
Ethics Lecture Week 6 – Workplace dynamics
Last week
Risk and Safety
Safety is an acceptable risk
Risk is the likelihood that something harmful might happen.
How we assign risk depends on:
If risk is chosen voluntarily
If risk happens nearby, to people we know
How the probabilities of harm are presented
Safe exits are essential as everything fails eventually
Plans for today
Effects of technology on the workplace
Workplace dynamics and ethical issues
The virtues of teamwork
Ethical corporate climates
The power of authority and atmosphere
Loyalty and respect
Managing conflict
Confidentiality
Conflicts of interest
Changing nature of work
Teleworking
Ability to work from home
Benefits:
More flexible working hours
Good for those with family commitments
Environmentally friendly?
But
May lose benefits and security
Difficulty of lack of social contact
Health issues
Repetitive Strain Injury/ Carpal Tunnel Syndrome most common
Job destruction and creation
Going, going, gone – bank tellers, checkout assistants, film processors etc
Problems of loss of knowledge and capabilities
New – computer engineers! Programmers, web designers, systems analysts etc
But also problems of finding work when using democratised technology.
Hanover, Brighton: home of ‘out-of-work website designers’.
Paper, productivity and the workplace
What happened to the ‘paperless office’?
Idea that paper would become redundant as automative technologies were introduced to the office.
However, printing technologies also allowed bulk production of copies so paper consumption went up.
The Productivity Paradox: (Also Solow paradox) Worker productivity goes down as new ICTs are introduced.
Ratios for input and output hard to measure.
New problems of email and spam
Use of internet for non-work purposes http://www.ukassignment.org/ygcourseworkdx/
Computers used for work with little productivity, or ‘presentation technologies’
Eg. Powerpoint, word processesising
Paper doesn’t disappear – need to run both paper and ICT systems in parallel
Eg. Research Policy
Paper copies also needed as physical back-up (to scribble on, read, etc).
May be generational shift – younger people find it easier to read ‘on screen’ than older.
Poor software and hardware
Ongoing training required with each upgrade
And changes driven by technology as companies profit from rapid upgrades
The soul of a new machine#p#分页标题#e#
Data General Corporation: Falling behind competition, needed new microcomputer to sustain market share.
Eclipse MV/8000
Assembled by 15 enthusiastic though inexperienced engineers
Delivered ahead of schedule
‘Soul’ of the machine not one person, but investment of team themselves.
Motivated by more than money and ego – commitment and professionalism in teamwork
Brings with it moral issues
Individual vs team
Culture of organisation that allowed them to work this way
Ethics of group behaviour
Egoism
If I behave poorly, I may be asked to leave, or otherwise penalised.
Utilitarianism
The behaviour of a few negatively affects the opportunities of many.
Rights and duties
I have the right to misbehave, but I have a duty towards my colleagues.
My colleagues have a right to learn and work.
Teamwork, loyalty and motivation
What work in groups or teams have you done so far?
School / University / Work
What is difficult about it?
What role do you play in a team?
Virtues of teamworking?
Loyalty to organisation
Respect for authority
Collegiality
But these are only virtues within organisations that maintain an ethical environment
What work in groups or teams have you done so far?
School / University / Work
What is difficult about it?
What role do you play in a team?
Virtues of teamworking?
Loyalty to organisation
Respect for authority
Collegiality
But these are only virtues within organisations that maintain an ethical environment
Managing conflict
Conflict resolution is a responsibility of all engineers.
Cost, personality, schedules, resource access, admin, priorities, technical issues, personality
How not to solve conflicts?
Reitz et al. (1998) list ten popular negotiating actions to try for yourselves!:
Lies
Puffery - exaggerating the value of something
Deception - misleading promises, threats; misstatements of fact
Weakening the opponent -undermining strengths, alliances
Strengthening one’s own position
Non-disclosure - withholding pertinent information
Information exploitation - misusing information
Change of mind - said one thing, doing another
Distraction - deliberately luring to overlook information, alternatives
Maximisation - exploiting position without regard for others
How to solve conflicts?
Separate people from problem
Focus on interests, not position
Generate variety of options
Ethical corporate climates
What is an ethical climate?
Working environment that allows morally responsible behaviour
Includes formal policy; informal tradition; personal attitudes#p#分页标题#e#
Complexity
Complexity of ethical values are acknowledged and appreciated – beyond just ‘obeying the law’
Language
Code of ethics, and ethical responsibilities in job description
But codes are useless if they are not well-developed, implemented, and followed up.
Conflict resolution procedures
Channels are available to report problems, and issues are followed up.
Management as example
Behaviour of management team/CEO/MD mirrors that in code of conduct.
Management are accountable to same standard as rest of employees.
Management wields power: their behaviour affects organisational culture and the behaviour of others.
The power of authority and atmosphere Stanford Prison Experiment
Examined human response to captivity, and behaviour of authority and inmates in prison
1971: Conducted by Philip Zimbardo and research team.
24 students – half guards, half prisoners. Selected for lack of existing psych issues, criminal record, medical factors.
Halted after 6 days (instead of 14): guards demonstrating sadistic and abusive behaviour, inmates rebelling and emotionally disturbed.
Experiment itself criticised for being unethical – violates several codes of conduct.
Systems of power and hierarchy can encourage and legitimise abusive behaviour
Not ‘bad apple’ but ‘bad barrel’: culture and defined power roles affect
Similar experiments yield similar results – although certain individuals may resist system.
Comparisons to abuses in Abu Ghraib – environment and support/blind eye of higher authorities caused situation, not (only) sadism of individual guards.
The power of authority and atmosphere: The Milgram experiments
1961, conducted by Stanley Milgram.
Original interest: were perpetrators in Holocaust just following orders?
Measured willingness of people to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their moral conscience
Participant instructed to give electric shocks to 3rd party, up to maximum 450v
‘Experimenter’ and ‘victim’ actually actors.
As voltage increased, ‘victim’ began to bang on dividing wall, begging for experiment to stop.
65% administer final shock (even though all question experiment beforehand)
Four ‘verbal prods’ to continue experiment.
In spite of internal moral compass, people obey authority:
People do not see themselves as responsible for their actions if following orders.
People leave decision making to the group or hierarchy if they think they are not able/capable themselves.
“Ordinary people, simply doing their jobs, and without any particular hostility on their part, can become agents in a terrible destructive process” (Milgram)
Respect for whom? The problem of management
Respect for authority is important in meeting goals (avoid chaos, identify responsibility)#p#分页标题#e#
Executive authority: Right given to a person by a corporation/institution to exercise power
Expert authority: Possession of knowledge/skill/competence
But: does power always come from the top? Or is it distributed more equally?
How do you think power is distributed in this lecture? In this university?
Management has many focuses:
Quality? Customers? Profit?
Focuses on wider perspective and people, rather than technology and ‘things’
‘Crunch Time’ and the Computer Games Industry
‘Crunch time’ = Long working hours at end of project.
Incredibly long working weeks (60-80 hours).
Theoretically only at end of project to meet tight deadlines.
In practice, can go on for months on end (even from the beginning of a project!)
No overtime, no compensation time, no additional holiday leave, no sick pay.
Result of a young industry which needs to learn how to manage deadlines better or of not wanting to pay for greater numbers of software engineers?
Reason why women may be less likely to enter the industry?
http://ea-spouse.livejournal.com/274.html
‘Crunch Time’ and the Computer Games Industry
‘Crunch time’ = Long working hours at end of project.
Incredibly long working weeks (60-80 hours).
Theoretically only at end of project to meet tight deadlines.
In practice, can go on for months on end (even from the beginning of a project!)
No overtime, no compensation time, no additional holiday leave, no sick pay.
Result of a young industry which needs to learn how to manage deadlines better or of not wanting to pay for greater numbers of software engineers?
Reason why women may be less likely to enter the industry?
http://ea-spouse.livejournal.com/274.html
Duties of employees
Conflicts of interest
Discussed in week 1 - not knowing what the ‘right’ thing to do is.
In the workplace: having interests which might prevent professionals from meeting obligations to clients or employers, arising when:
In a relationship requiring good judgment on behalf of clients/employers
Has additional or side interest that could threaten good judgment.
Conflict of interest =/= conflicting interests
Conflicting interest: Multiple options that cannot all be achieved
Conflict of interest: Possible to pursue all options, but would be morally problematic to do so
Conflicts of interest Bribes, gifts and kickbacks
Bribe: Substantial offering given with aim of winning an unfair advantage.
Unethical: threaten fairness in competitive situations.
Conflict of interest between what the company is paying you to do, and your own interests.
Kickback: Pre-arranged payment made to companies in exchange for contracts already granted
But: will also encounter gifts and hospitality
Official and unofficial ‘perks’ that purchasing staff may be offered when dealing with salespeople.#p#分页标题#e#
May be innocent, may be part of relationship, may try to induce business.
When is a bribe a bribe?
What is the intent?
How is it received?
指导英国coursework-英国coursework写作How is it perceived?d by outsiders?
Ethical policy and defence contractors
Martin Marietta Corporation
1985, Introduced ethics program to emphasise honesty and fairness
Code of conduct, workshops, channels of communication
Result of public scrutiny of the defence sector
Not just trying to avoid legal penalities, but aiming to institutionalise ethical commitments
But now part of Lockheed Martin:
Arms and defense industry have ongoing issues with bribery and corruption.
Other initiatives less successful
‘Window dressing’
Behaviour of top management unchanged
Conflicts of interest Moonlighting
Having an interest in rival or sub-contractor’s company.
Working as an employee or consultant
Self or family member? - nepotism
Partial ownership (where is the line?)
‘Moonlighting’: working in spare time for another company.
Would prohibition violate rights to pursue legitimate self-interest?
Generally just describes taking a secondary, part-time job to supplement a primary, full-time job.
Most common in blue-collar/’rank-and-file’ jobs.
Eg. NHS doctors can ‘moonlight’ in more lucrative private practices
When does it become a problem?
Time
Loyalty
Priorities?
Conflicts of interest Insider informationUsing ‘inside’ information to gain an advantage or set up a business opportunity.
Own or company
Securities may be bought or sold on the basis of non-public information.
Moral case: based on equality of information access
Ownership: Unauthorised use of company resources for own gain.
Knowledge/info is owned by company
Trust: Harm to investors and the markets, undermining of fiduciary relationship.
Martha Stewart
Sold 4,000 shares – next day share price fell 16%
Avoided loss of US$45,673
200$: Served 5 month prison sentence
Moral status of conflict of interests
Not always unethical to pursue conflicts of interest
Eg. US Government allows employees of aircraft manufacturers to serve as government inspectors for the Federal Aviation Agency.
Other options: greater expense to taxpayers or greater risk to public
Universities may encourage staff to take outside work to supplement salary and career development.
Teaching, consultancy, etc.
But: Conflicts of interest can violate trust and undermine free competition
Appearance of wrongdoing can harm an organisation as much as actual wrongdoing#p#分页标题#e#
Employees may have details in contract preventing them from bringing their workplace into disrepute, eg. Jonathan Ross.
Confidentiality
Duty of confidentiality - to keep all information secret that it is desirable to keep secret.
In business: that affects ability to compete
In academia: ???
In theory: ‘Free revealing’ gift economy via publications.
In practice: High levels of competition about being first to publish original results, RAE, securing grants etc.
But: what do we mean by ‘secrecy’?
Different parties working together may have different ideas about whether information is confidential.
Privileged information: ‘Available on the basis of privilege’
Proprietary information: Information that the company owns (is proprietor of)
Patents - protected by law
Trade secret - no protection
‘Corporate spies’ (aka ‘industrial espionage): False head-hunting to obtain information.
How much information can be taken from one job to another?
You will be employed on the basis that you know something! Skills, experience etc
But: former employees banned indefinitely from revealing trade secrets
Yet may be facing similar projects to previous work: where does know-how stop and trade secrets start?
1997: Volkswagen vs General Motors
US$100m payout to GM plus US$1bn to be purchased in parts from GM
1993: GM’s manufacturing expert had moved to VW, taking 3 employees + confidential GM documents
Confidentiality Management Policies and JustificationsRestrictions on future employment can be drawn up in current contracts.
Where future employer is based
Length of time between leaving current job and taking on certain other types of work
Types of work permissible with future employers
How would you feel about having one of these contracts?
Other tactics
Bargaining
Restricted information access in workplace
Generate professional responsibility?
Summary
Teamwork motivated by more than ego and money
Managing conflict an important part of this
Ethical climate within the company also required to encourage ethical behaviour
But must be more than ‘window dressing’
Confidentiality important, but can be hard to enforce and also used as a cover for abuse
Loyalty and respect motivated by different factors
指导英国coursework-英国coursework写作Conflicts of interest can skew this loyalty
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