留学生心理学Essay写作框架：Analysis of 'Counseling: A Comprehensive Profession' by Samuel Gladdings

本文是心理学专业的留学生Essay范例，题目是“Analysis of 'Counseling: A Comprehensive Profession' by Samuel Gladdings（《心理咨询:一门综合性职业》分析）”，本文讨论元认知问卷的编制。研究人员提供了调查问卷是如何开发的详细步骤。该问卷被称为独立学习意识量表(AILI)。

Meijer et al(2013)认为元认知调节与元认知知识存在差异。元认知调节是指一个人在实际实践中调节不同认知活动的能力。相反，元认知知识是指一个人成功解决问题的能力。研究人员讨论了现有的两种元认知问卷，包括MAI和MSLQ。MSLQ评估了大学生的动机取向以及学生在学习中如何使用不同的学习策略。相比之下，MAI问卷被研究人员用于成年人和青少年识别元认知学习者。然而，Meijer等人(2013)强调，这两份问卷并不涉及元认知反应，因此有必要开发AILI来解决元认知反应。

The article discusses the development of a metacognition questionnaire. The researchers have provided detailed steps on how the questionnaire was developed. The questionnaire was referred to as the Awareness of Independent Learning Inventory (AILI). According to Meijer et al (2013), there is a difference between metacognitive regulation and metacognitive knowledge. Metacognitive regulation refers to a person's ability to regulate different cognitive activities within the actual practice. In contrast, metacognitive knowledge refers to how well a person can solve problems successfully. The researchers discussed two existing metacognitive questionnaires which include the MAI and the MSLQ. The MSLQ assesses the motivational orientation of college students and how the students use different learning strategies in their learning. In contrast, the MAI questionnaire is used by researchers on both adults and adolescents to identify metacognitive learners. However, Meijer et al (2013) emphasize that these two questionnaires do not address metacognitive responsiveness hence there is a need to develop AILI which will address metacognitive responsiveness.

The researchers constructed two versions of AILI which include AILI A and AILI B. These two versions of AILI purposed to gauge the metacognition skills of the students across different topics. Three distinct characteristics differentiated AILI from other questionnaires. First, AILI conceptualized three major components which include metacognitive responsiveness, metacognitive regulation, and metacognitive knowledge. Secondly, AILI avoided intertwining metacognitive and cognitive questions. Lastly, AILI considers metacognition to be a trait rather than a state. Besides, the researchers used a faceted design to come with the given questionnaire.

研究人员构建了两个版本的“AILI”，包括“AILI A”和“AILI b”。这两个版本的“AILI”旨在测试学生在不同主题上的元认知技能。AILI与其他问卷有三个显著差异。首先，AILI概念化了元认知反应、元认知调节和元认知知识三个主要组成部分。其次，避免元认知和认知问题纠缠在一起。最后，AILI认为元认知是一种特征而不是一种状态。此外，研究人员在问卷中采用了分面设计。

Before the actual research, the validity and reliability of the AILI questionnaire were tested during the pilot study.

The researchers administered the AILI questionnaire to 1058 students from different institutes that offers a teaching platform for the teachers in Belgium and the Netherlands. Similarly, another group of 729 students from the University of Maastricht studying Economics and Business Administration was given an English version of the AILI questionnaire. It took the students 25 minutes to fill in the questionnaires. For data analysis, the researchers performed a decision study and a generalizability study. From the study finds, the reliability of the AILI was satisfactory. This was tested using the generalizability study. The findings obtained from the decision study revealed that the components of AILI could be reduced to leave two components of a single dimension of the facet design. Nevertheless, the study findings indicated congruence with the relevant parts of MSLQ and the AILI questionnaire.

研究人员对1058名来自不同机构的学生进行了AILI问卷调查，这些机构为比利时和荷兰的教师提供了一个教学平台。同样，另一组来自马斯特里赫特大学(University of Maastricht)学习经济和工商管理的729名学生也得到了AILI调查问卷的英文版。学生们花了25分钟来填写问卷。为了进行数据分析，研究人员进行了决策研究和概括性研究。从研究发现，AILI的信度是令人满意的。这是通过泛化研究进行的测试。决策研究的结果显示，AILI的组成部分可以被简化为一个面设计的单一维度的两个组成部分。然而，研究结果表明，MSLQ和AILI问卷的相关部分是一致的。

The study concluded that the AILI questionnaire is valid and reliable tools that can be utilized too measure the metacognitive responsiveness, regulation, and knowledge. Thus, the AILI questionnaire can be utilized to increase metacognitive responsiveness, knowledge, and regulation of higher education students. However, the researchers recommended further research to validate the AILI questionnaire. The researchers agreed that there was a need to use separate scores even though the AILI sub-component score was highly correlated. Also, there are uncertainties about whether there was successful avoidance of intertwinement of metacognition and cognition in the AILI questionnaire.

Psychology of education focuses on the different ways used by humans to learn and retain important knowledge in a learning set-up. Therefore, the use of psychology in education is interested in social, emotional and cognitive learning. Therefore, a psychologist researching education is likely to focus on testing and teaching methods, learning, and classroom environment, behavioral and social problems. The current article demonstrates psychology in education by focusing on a testing method that is based on psychology. The AILI questionnaire tests metacognition which is a major aspect studied in psychology. About psychology, metacognition refers to "cognition of cognition." This involves regulation and knowledge about cognitive phenomena.

Different views are given by psychologists who are interested in the field of education. According to Arnold et al (2017), educational psychology is interested in analyzing factors like instructional process, student outcomes, gifted learners and student differences in learning. The modern complex education system has compelled psychologists to work closely with students, administrators and instructors to improve learning outcomes. According to Gascoine, Higgins, and Wall (2017), psychologists working in an educational approach are majorly interested in organizational learning, instructional design, special education, curriculum development, and gifted learners. There are different psychological perspectives used to understand education. The behavioral perspective believes that conditioning facilitates learning of new behaviors. Educational perspectives using this view rely on operant conditioning. The recent view of education is the constructive approach which tries to understand how children construct knowledge of their surroundings. Other psychological views of education include the cognitive perspective and the developmental perspective.

对教育领域感兴趣的心理学家给出了不同的观点。根据Arnold et al(2017)，教育心理学感兴趣的是分析诸如教学过程、学生成果、有天赋的学习者和学生学习差异等因素。现代复杂的教育系统迫使心理学家与学生、管理人员和教师密切合作，以提高学习效果。根据Gascoine, Higgins和Wall(2017)，从事教育研究的心理学家主要对组织学习、教学设计、特殊教育、课程开发和天才学习者感兴趣。有不同的心理学观点用来理解教育。行为观认为，条件作用促进了新行为的学习。使用这种观点的教育观点依赖于操作性条件反射。最近的教育观是一种建设性的方法，它试图理解孩子们如何构建对周围环境的知识。其他关于教育的心理学观点包括认知视角和发展视角。

Several influential works of different scholars have influenced education psychology. Jerome Bruner is a psychologist who made a great contribution to the cognitive revolution. His work addresses key areas in education which include analytical and intuitive learning, readiness for learning, and the central role of structure in learning and teaching and motives for learning.

According to Bruner, human beings have a generic coding system that provides them with an ability to reflect and analyze data to obtain useful predictions. Also, David Ausubel is a psychologist whose work is highly influential in education psychology. He came up with an understanding of "advance organizers" to improve knowledge retention and assimilation. According to Couchman et al (2016), educators and teachers have the capability of presenting new knowledge to students in an understandable way. Other influential scholars in educational psychology include Benjamin Bloom, Albert Bandura, and Howard Gardner. The current approach to metacognition questionnaires is different from the previous approaches. The MAI and MSQL questionnaires assess metacognitive regulation and metacognitive knowledge. However, the current approach to metacognition using the AILI questionnaire captures an additional factor which is metacognitive responsiveness. In general, the AILI questionnaire tests the metacognitive regulation, metacognitive knowledge, and metacognitive responsiveness.

根据Bruner的说法，人类有一个通用的编码系统，使他们能够反映和分析数据，从而获得有用的预测。另外，David Ausubel是一位心理学家，他的工作在教育心理学中有很大的影响力。他提出了“提前组织者”的理解，以提高知识的保留和吸收。根据Couchman et al(2016)，教育者和教师有能力以一种可以理解的方式向学生呈现新知识。其他有影响力的学者在教育心理学包括本杰明布鲁姆，阿尔伯特班杜拉和霍华德加德纳。目前的元认知问卷调查方法不同于以往的方法。MAI和MSQL问卷评估元认知调节和元认知知识。然而，目前使用AILI问卷研究元认知的方法抓住了一个额外的因素，即元认知反应。总体而言，AILI问卷测试了元认知调节、元认知知识和元认知反应。

Psychologists are interested in meta-cognition because it's the control of conscious cognitive activity. The new concept of mindfulness has led to the study of different aspects of metacognition. This is because there are shared commonalities between mindfulness and metacognition. Thus, metacognition is a concept that is demonstrated in daily activities. According to Karwowski, Czerwonka, and Kaufman (2018), metacognition has two major clusters of activities which include monitoring the levels of cognition knowledge. Thus, metacognitive knowledge is a person's understanding of the existing cognitive processes. In contrast, metacognitive regulation is manifested during the problem-solving process when a person can regulate the cognitive process.

According to Özsoy, Memiş, and Temur (2017), the two elements of metacognition are related by the have distinct characteristics. First, knowledge about cognition is fallible, stable and develops late. In contrast, cognitive regulation is independent of age and unstable. Another reason why psychologists are interested in metacognition is that meta-cognition is used in psychotherapies. Such therapies are referred to as metacognitive therapies (MCT). Other types of psychotherapies focus on thought content whereas MCT is interested in the thought process. For a metacognitive therapist, a person's thinking and behavior control are more important compared to what the person is thinking about. In MCT, the general intention is to mechanisms responsible for the development and maintenance of psychological disorders. These mechanisms include metacognitive attention, believes and the control of thoughts.

根据Özsoy、Memiş和Temur(2017)，这两个元认知元素之间的联系具有鲜明的特征。首先，关于认知的知识是容易出错的、稳定的、发展较晚的。相反，认知调节是独立于年龄和不稳定的。心理学家对元认知感兴趣的另一个原因是元认知被用于心理治疗。这种疗法被称为元认知疗法(MCT)。其他类型的心理疗法关注的是思维内容，而MCT关注的是思维过程。对于元认知治疗师来说，一个人的思维和行为控制比这个人在想什么更重要。在MCT中，一般的目的是研究心理障碍的发展和维持机制。这些机制包括元认知注意、信念和思想控制。

Metacognition is also a relevant psychological topic in the field of education. According to Desoete (2017), metacognition is used in almost all problem-solving situations. However, Meijer et al (2013) have revealed the use of metacognitive tests in learning. The AILI questionnaire is meant to improve the learning outcomes of the students by targeting their metacognitive skills. One area of interest for metacognitive tests is to teach students how to regulate and control their comprehension of information when reading. Desoete (2017) confirmed this intervention by improving the student's metacognitive skills by using tutor feedback and reflection prompts.

The researchers provided an overview of the previous literature to provide readers with a clear background of AILI. This exposed the previous tests developed to test the metacognitive abilities of students. This includes the MSLQ and MAI. Also, the researcher's distinguished between the two tests and the AILI. From a psychological perspective, good research acknowledges similar works of other researchers. Meijer et al (2013) also provided a research justification which indicates why the AILI questionnaire should be conducted. The AILI questionnaire can capture metacognitive responsiveness which is not tested by MSLQ and MAI.

研究者提供了先前文献的概述，为读者提供一个清晰的背景。这暴露了之前为测试学生的元认知能力而开发的测试。这包括MSLQ和MAI。同时，研究人员区分了这两个测试和AILI。从心理学的角度来看，好的研究肯定了其他研究人员的类似工作。Meijer et al(2013)也提供了一个研究论证，说明为什么应该进行AILI问卷调查。AILI问卷可以捕捉到未被MSLQ和MAI测试的元认知反应。

This satisfies the aim of psychological research which is to add new knowledge to the existing psychological knowledge.

The AILI questionnaire considered conceptualization of metacognition, avoiding intertwinement between metacognitive and cognitive questions and viewing metacognition from the perspective of a trait. The researchers used facet design to develop the AILI questionnaire. Generally, facet design is used by psychologists to coordinate theory and research. Validity and reliability tests are of paramount importance when developing a psychological test. This determines the generalization of the study findings to the general population. Through the use of generalizability theory, the results were deemed valid and reliable. The sample used for the research was representative of the general population having both male and female respondents who were undertaking different learning courses and from different countries.

The sample selection met the criteria for psychological research. Also, there was a uniform administration of the AILI questionnaire with no bias. The use of decision study and generalizability put the AILI questionnaire within the scope of psychology. This is because the two analysis methods are commonly used in psychology research. Moreover, the researchers used the test-retest method to confirm the reliability of the study. This is a common test used by psychologists to establish study reliability, especially when developing new tests or confirming the outcomes of a theory. The test-retest method was used to test correlations that were obtained from a given number of students in their first year of study.

The results from both the decision study and the generalizability study indicate that the AILI test can be used in different populations. Therefore, these results are psychological. First, the researchers used a psychological method to arrive at the results. The metacognitive responsiveness was 0.25. This suggested that students who were reporting on metacognitive responsiveness were dependent on the study context. Secondly, the study established correlations while using the AILI questionnaire. In psychology, correlation studies are conducted to establish a relationship between two or more variables. These correlations were used by the researchers to arrive at the results. For example, the researchers used correlation to establish the relationship between AILI and MALQ factors. The obtained correlation scores indicate that the MSLQ scale corresponds to the AILI components like performance and learning. These results are similar to other metacognition studies which indicate that AILI tests like MAI and MSLQ questionnaires can test learning-related metacognition.

决策研究和泛化研究的结果表明，AILI检验可用于不同的群体。因此，这些结果是心理上的。首先，研究人员使用心理学方法得出了结果。元认知反应性为0.25。这表明，报告元认知反应的学生依赖于研究环境。其次，本研究在使用AILI问卷时建立了相关性。在心理学中，相关研究是为了建立两个或多个变量之间的关系。研究人员利用这些相关性得出了这些结果。例如，研究人员使用相关性来建立AILI和MALQ因素之间的关系。得到的相关分数表明，MSLQ量表对应于AILI的性能和学习等成分。这些结果与其他元认知研究相似，表明AILI测试，如MAI和MSLQ问卷可以测试学习相关的元认知。

Other scholars are likely to view these results as irrelevant. A close look at the components of the AILI questionnaire reveal that the AILI tests metacognitive elements that were tested earlier by MAI and MSLQ questionnaires. Using AILI in educational contexts would be similar to using the MSLQ test. Also, there is no clear explanation of how the researchers avoided the intertwinement of metacognition and cognition. This reveals some gaps in the methodology. A good methodology in psychology should be followed by another researcher to arrive at the same results. However, the methodology used is confusing since it cannot be followed by another researcher due to a lack of a clear method for avoiding the intertwinement between metacognition and cognition.

The article is psychological in nature considering the concept discussed and the methodology used to develop the questionnaire. Metacognition is a psychological concept which is usually applied in education psychology. Prior to the AILI questionnaire, other psychologists had developed MSLQ and MAI questionnaires that were responsible in measuring metacognitive knowledge and regulation. The researchers argue that AILI is able to test three factors which include metacognitive knowledge, parameters and responsiveness. The research findings are considered psychological because the researchers used generalizability test and decision study to examine the rationality in the AILI questionnaire. Also, there was a broad use of correlation to establish the relationship between AILI and MSLQ questionnaire. Correlation is an analysis method which is used in psychological research. Unfortunately, lack of a clear method to avoid intertwinement between cognition and metacognition challenges the reliability and generalizability of the research findings.

考虑到所讨论的概念和开发问卷所用的方法，这篇文章是心理学性质的。元认知是教育心理学中常用的一个心理学概念。在AILI问卷之前，其他心理学家已经开发了MSLQ和MAI问卷，用于测量元认知知识和调节。研究人员认为，AILI能够测试三个因素，包括元认知知识、参数和反应。研究结果被认为是心理学的，因为研究者使用了概括性检验和决策研究来检验AILI问卷的合理性。在AILI与MSLQ问卷之间建立了广泛的相关性。相关性是心理学研究中常用的一种分析方法。遗憾的是，由于缺乏明确的方法来避免认知和元认知的纠缠，研究结果的可靠性和泛化性受到了挑战。

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