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I. Introduction
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is regarded as one shining pearl of the greatest cultural heritages of Chinese ancient civilizations. It is a comprehensive and unique scientific system with remarkable curative effects and few side effects during the several thousand years of medical practice and has been proved to be an extremely useful method to prevent and treat diseases. Because of the characteristics of TCM, World Health Organization recommended it as useful experience to the world and more and more people in the world began to realize its importance.
TCM has a long history. In remote ages, when our ancestors looked for food, they found that some foods had specific properties for relieving or curing certain diseases. Due to few exchanges with the outside world, TCM could not be introduced to the world in the foreign exchanges. Therefore, for thousands of years the TCM has been the tool for Chinese people alone to strengthen their bodies and prevent and treat diseases. About 200 B.C.—300 B.C., a book entitled The yellow Emperor’s Canon of Internal Medicine (《黄帝内经》) appeared. This book describes the foundations of human health and illness with illuminating discussions of the doctrine of Yin-Yang and the Five Elements, etc. On the basis of ancient ideas of Yin-Yang and Five Elements, TCM strives to explain a variety of physiological and pathological phenomena and their interactions, thus forming a unique scientific system in both theory and practice. (He Qiliang, Zhang Ye, 2006:145-146)
In the ending period of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning period of the Qing Dynasty, the missionaries of the western countries started to enter China to preach and they discovered the treasure—TCM. Nevertheless, their preaching activities were forbidden by the Ming and Qing Dynasties and they were banished from China before they began to understand TCM.
Then in the end of the 18th century, the missionaries returned to China with opium and gunboats. They began to translate TCM in English according to their own understanding and in this way they introduced TCM to the world. This is regarded as the beginning of English translation of TCM. But they knew neither Chinese nor TCM, the translation during this period developed very slowly.
After the foreign missionaries left China, some Chinese people who lived in English-speaking countries tried to translate the classics of TCM into English on the basis of their memory and knowledge of TCM. These people made their contributions to TCM translation and its spread in the world.
In the 1970’s, China adopted the policy of opening to the world. The speed of the spread of TCM in the world was quickening up. For the next more than 30 years, the study on the English translation of TCM has been developed to a great degree. From 1990 till now, the development of TCM translation has become faster and faster. A theoretical and comprehensive study of TCM translation has begun. English TCM courses also have appeared which has promoted the study of TCM translation to an unprecedented height.
II．Existing Problems of English Translation of TCM
With the international exchanges and trade activities of TCM prosper day by day, there are more and more people in the world accepting the treatment of TCM nowadays. However, TCM has unique theories and its diagnostic methods are different from those of the modern medicine. In addition, the medicine literature is written in the classical Chinese, which is obscure and difficult to be understood. All these result in the particularity and difficulty of the English translation of TCM. Therefore, there are many problems in the current English translation of TCM and it can not meet the needs of the foreign exchanges of TCM by far. The inferior translation is in flood, there are a large number of inconsistent translations, inaccurate translations such as mistranslations and wrong translations. Although we have more and more translators and interpreters of the English translation of TCM and the development of the English translation is vigorous recently, there are still some problems.
2.1 Lack of Congruous Standardization
The dictionaries of TCM are in the majority, which is hard to bring about a system. In the dictionaries, readers can only obtain the isolated understanding of the concepts. They cannot understand the essential characteristics and the relations of the concepts. It is much far from mastering the systematic theories of TCM. It is commonly realized that we should have standardized translated textbooks and works on TCM to achieve the aim of spreading TCM. But in fact, we have only a few translated textbooks reflecting the system of TCM, and the translations of the classics of TCM are even rarer. This reality, to some degree, worsens the further foreign exchanges. At the same time, in many translated editions, the concepts and the terminology lack unity, their readability and the information transmission cannot meet the learners’ need. Here are some examples of the diversified English translation of some of the commonly-used concepts in TCM:
命门—gate of life; vital gate; vita port; mingmen
三焦—three warmers; three burners; three heaters; triple energizer
相火—prime-minister fire; ministerial fire; the “prime” fire; xianghuo
五脏—five solid organs; five zang-organs; five zang-viscera
六腑—six hollow organs; six fu-organs; six fu-viscera
2.2 The Inferior Translation
The inferior translations are in flood. There are a large number of mistranslations, missed translations and wrong translations in the translated works of TCM. The language of TCM is very difficult to understand. The great difference between the western and Chinese cultures and the semantic change between the classical Chinese and the modern Chinese causes great difficulty in understanding the original text in the process of translation. Therefore, it is not an easy thing to translate it into modern Chinese, the difficulty of translating it into English is greater. There are few people able and even fewer people willing to translate the TCM. Here are some examples:
《黄帝内经》 —Yellow Emperor’s Internal Medicine
《千金要方》 —Prescriptions Worth One Thousand Gold
If we consider the above translations carefully, it is very easy to find the influence of the misunderstandings about the original words on their translation.《黄帝内经》was translated as The Canon of Medicine in the English version of The Traditional Chinese Medicine Magazine in 1983, as The Yellow Emperor’s Manual of Internal Medicine and
The Yellow Emperor’s Canon of Internal Medicine in the Chinese-English Medical Dictionary published by the People’s Health Publishing House in 1987. “黄帝” in 《黄帝内经》is obviously not the “Yellow Emperor（黄色的皇帝）” and “内经” is not “Internal Medicine（内科，内科学）”. Such versions are caused by word-for-word translation of the translators. It should be translated as: Huangdi’s Cannon of Medicine, Huangdi’s Classic on Medicine, Canon of Medicine or Neijing. (Li Zhaoguo, Zhu Zhongbao, 2002: 20)
In many English textbooks of TCM and dictionaries of the recent fifteen years, “千金”in 《千金要方》and 《备急千金要方》is all translated as “One Thousand Gold”. In addition, in dictionaries such as A Practical English-Chinese Library of Traditional Chinese Medicine(Zhang Enqin, 1990) and A Practical Chinese-English Dictionary of Traditional Chinese Medicine(Zhang Qiwen, 2001), it is translated in the same way. However, this translation is questionable: firstly, gold is measured with “liang” (两) in the past and gram or ounce now. How much is “one thousand gold”? Secondly, does “千金” in 《千金要方》really mean this? We all know that Sun Simiao said that a person’s life is more valuable than one-thousand-liang gold and it is boundless beneficence to save a patient’s life with a prescription in his preface of Qianjin Yaofang. Therefore, using “千金”to name his book is emphasizing its aim of relieving the people with various kinds of diseases and the importance of the prescriptions included in it. We suggest that 《千金要方》 be translated as Qianjin Yaofang with Chinese Pinyin.
2.3 The Inconsistent Translation
It is quite common that different translators of TCM use different target-language terms to describe the same source-language term. Take the Chinese word “虚”( a common word in TCM ) for example, different versions of translation of it can be listed as following:
脾虚—spleen deficiency
肝血虚—insufficiency of liver blood
脾虚泻—chronic diarrhea due to hypo function of the spleen
虚家—patient with weak constitution
虚脉—feeble pulse
虚热渴—thirst due to aesthetic heat
All the above English equivalents with the Chinese character“虚”can be found in the same dictionary compiled by Zhang Qiwen and Sun Hengshan.
One of the main reasons for this inconsistency is that TCM noun terminology itself has the phenomenon that one word has several meanings, several words share the same meaning and different terms have different meanings in different situations. Moreover, certain English words and expressions can only express certain meanings of TCM terminology. Therefore, the same TCM term possibly has different translation forms in different situations (Li Zhaoguo, Zhu zhongbao, 2002: 8). It is inevitable for the TCM noun terminology to have inconsistent translations.#p#分页标题#e#
III. The Principles of English Translation of TCM
The English translation of TCM belongs to the category of scientific translation and must follow the general principles of translation. However, TCM has its own characteristics and its academic language is also different from those of other disciplines. What’s more, researches on the English translation of TCM start late and now it is just at the initial stage. To explore the translation theories and principles is an urgent duty and it is also the key to whether TCM can be widely accepted and learned by the foreign learners. In translating TCM, the readers must be placed in the most important position. Therefore, the English translation of TCM must follow some principles to change its present situation and solve the existing problems.
3.1 Yan Fu’s Triple Criteria
Yan Fu, one of the most important figures in the modern period of translation in China, was the most influential translator and translation theorist. He won the reputation as a famous translator also as a result of his contribution to translation theory. He set down the triple translation criteria of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. These criteria influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being. Actually, his triple criteria are also fit for the translation of TCM.
Faithfulness requires that the meaning in the target language should be faithful to the meaning of the original. Expressiveness is the requirement of intelligibility of the target language text. The translated text should be in accordance with the language rules of the target language. Elegance requires a translation to be esthetically pleasing (Zhang Yanqing, Xi Dong, 2007:5-6).
In the translation of TCM, it is difficult for the translators to reach the requirements because of the difficulty of understanding of TCM and the differences between different cultures. But we can take them as the main principles to improve the existing translation of the names of TCM.
3.2 Reliability and Understandability
Reliability means that the original works content is translated completely and correctly. There should be no changes, omissions or rearrangements to sentence and paragraph structure. Therefore, the aim should be to ensure that the original style and content of the translated work remains intact. This requires that the translator not only have a good command of the two languages but also a correct understanding of TCM theory and principles (Jiang Jichang, 2003:158).
Understandability refers that the translation is comprehensible and fluent, and that there exist no forced translation, no inappropriate grammar, structure or logic. The great Chinese writer Lu Xun greatly emphasized “Try your best to ensure the translation is understandable”. For example, if we put“shang han(伤寒)”into the classification of “cold injury”, “affected by cold-evil” or“diseases caused by harmful cold”, it is difficult to understand. However, if classified as a febrile disease, it becomes easier to understand.
Specific or particular TCM terms which are difficult to be translated into equivalent English, they can be translated by “free translation methods”, or be expressed by Pinyin with suitable explanations in order to ensure that the readers understand them.
Reliability and understandability being the standards of TCM translation into English are now being accepted and pursued by foreign translators who have a deep knowledge of TCM and understand the Chinese language. Never should we in order to attain understandability, betray or deviate from the other standard of translation which is reliability.
The authentic A Modern Chinese-English Dictionary and Classified Dictionary of Traditional Chinese Medicine translates “dandu(丹毒)”as“erysipelas”, yet Traditional Chinese dictionaries tell us this term can include snake girdle cinnabar (herpes zoster). Cinnabar describes things red in color. Herpes zoster is red; there the identity ends in western medicine. Thus where texts translate “dandu” only as the western medical term “erysipelas”, all the other cases conveyed by the original Chinese word, including herpes zoster, are lost, and thus doctors will be misled (Jiang Jichang, 2003:159).
It is very important for translators to grasp the standard of understandability and reliability. At translation practice, translators should combine the two standards of reliability and understandability together. Only in this way can translators present a pure and accurate form of TCM via translation to the world which can be understood and accepted.
3.3 The Scientific Principle
The scientific principle requires that the English translation of TCM be semantically precise, morphologically concise and structurally consistent with the formation and swage of modern scientific and technological terminology (Guan Qisheng, 1995: 41).
It should be firstly pointed out that the translation of TCM belongs to medical translation without any doubt. Therefore, the transmission of medical information is the core of English translation of TCM. That is to say, what the English translation of TCM must firstly transmit to the readers should be the scientific knowledge, but not the literature or the philosophic knowledge. The modern translation theory holds that translation is to translate the meanings. It is certain that for the specific content, one language can effectively transmit the same information with different expressions. In the process of transmitting information from one language to another, the content of the information should be retained at all prices except the special circumstances, for example, the translation of the poetry, in which the expressing forms of information is secondary. We may retain the original text forms as far as possible, but to retain the content usually needs to sacrifice the forms. To keep the forms will inevitably cause the loss or distortion of the information of TCM in the process of its transmission. Therefore, in order to transmit the medical information of TCM, certain language forms should be changed or even given up. So the translators need not regret giving up the rhetoric of the original text. When translating, the translators should obey realistically the original language but not play the word games. For example, there is a sentence “上古圣人之教下也，皆谓之虚邪贼风”. Here“贼风”is nothing but the pathogenic factors causing a cold, so it is reasonable to translate it into “pathogen” rather than “thief wind” literally. We are always accustomed to duplicating the language of ancient people repeatedly, but their original meanings become rather different from those attached on them afterwards.
3.4 The National Principle
TCM and the western medicine are two completely different medical systems. They are deeply influenced by their own national cultures and are marked prominently with national characteristics. So they have different understanding about physiology and pathology of human bodies. Therefore, it is very difficult to find the corresponding words and expressions in English for the unique terminology of TCM theories. Such terminology as “阴阳”、“气血”、“推拿”、“太阳” bear the unique characteristics of Chinese culture and they appear with very high frequency.
Their connotations are unable to be transmitted accurately through neither the literal translation nor the free translation. It would be better to translate them in Chinese Pinyin as “yin and yang”, “qi and blood”, “tuina” and “taiyang” in order to keep the essence of TCM and maintain their Chinese flavor. Although there are only a small percentage of such terminologies, they are the essential concepts in TCM.
There are certain words and expressions with the same or similar words but without the same connotations in English. For example, there are the words “heart” and “fire”, but do not have the concept of “heart fire” in English. How to deal with such concepts of TCM in the process of their translation? The general way is to loan the fixed words and expressions in English and rearrange their forms in accordance with the specific connotations of the concepts of TCM so that they can bear the information carried by the concepts of TCM. For example, “心火”can be translated as “heart fire”, “肾虚”as “kidney vacuity” and “肝血” as “liver blood”. Strictly speaking, these are only the translations of the superficial meanings; the connotations of the original concepts are still not in the newly combined forms. The organic combination of the forms and meanings of certain concepts still needs the continuous applications in the process of its exchanges and will be gradually realized.
IV. Strategies and Skills of Translating the Names of TCM
It is the fact that for quite a long time the dissemination of TCM develops very slowly. The situation is changing rapidly now, more and more products are exported abroad. Therefore, many translators have translated the names of TCM into English. At present, there are various methodologies of TCM translation, each has his own merits. Generally, there are some commonly-used methods below.
4.1 Literal Translation#p#分页标题#e#
Mao Dun agreed to this point of view that the so-called literal translation is by no means the word-for-word translation, exactly judging by the words and phrases of the original. It should mean to express the original spirit without distorting the original features.
TCM has its own unique understanding and expressions about the physiology and pathology of human bodies, which lack equivalents in English. Therefore, they are usually translated into English in literal ways in order to keep their own characteristics. For example,
桂林西瓜霜—guilin watermelon frost
肝藏血—liver stores blood
阴阳失调—yin-yang disharmony
风热腰痛—wind-heat lumbar pain
Literal translation does reveal more information, and the readers will have a general awareness of what the medicine is. What’s more, this kind of translation can add the finishing touch for showing the features peculiar to TCM. But they can’t make the readers understand the efficacy of the medicine.
4.2 Free Translation
Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without the form of the original. Different from the word-for-word translation, usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original and one of the most commonly used methods in translation. Therefore, the TCM translators often apply free translation to translate many expressions of TCM, for example:
温脾汤—decoction for warming in the spleen
清暑益气汤—decoction for clearing away summer-heart
泻白散—lung-heat expelling powder
The meanings of these original words and expressions are sufficiently expressed through free translation but there will be difficulties in understanding in case of literal translation. Judged from the translation practices of TCM within a long time, free translation is generally used in translating TCM. Because they give clear explanation of the efficacy of the medicine, the buyers will find convenient to purchase the right medicine they need.
4.3 Using Existing Equivalents
Existing equivalents can be divided into common language equivalents and western medical equivalents.
4.3.1 Common Language Equivalents
Common language equivalents are lay expressions that fit the meaning of the original Chinese terms. Distinction can be made between natural equivalents and adapted equivalents.
Natural equivalents are expressions in English that for any native speaker of English denote the same phenomena as the Chinese expressions denote for any native Chinese speaker. Common language equivalents of Chinese medical terms include “nose” for “鼻”, “eye” for “目”, “lung” for “肺”, etc. Natural equivalents exist for several disease entities: “measles” for “麻疹”, “malaria” for “疟疾”, and “epilepsy” for “癫痫”. They also exist for environmental phenomena by which certain diseases are explained, e.g. “wind, cold, fire, dampness and dryness” for “风、寒、火、湿、燥”.
Adapted equivalents are expressions whose literal meaning corresponds to that of the Chinese term, and which the translator explicitly endows with the specific medical meaning of the original Chinese term. They are equivalents in a loose sense that are terminologized to represent the concepts denoted by the source language terms. They are expressions whose meaning is adapted to embrace the specific meaning of the source language terms. The use of “repletion” is an adapted equivalent of “实”. Adapted equivalents tend to be used in the translation of abstract concepts. They notably include reproductions of metaphor in target language. For example, “卫” as “defense” and “邪” as “evil” (Wiseman, 2006:56).
4.3.2 Western Medical Equivalents
Western medical equivalents are terms that are taken from western medicine. The use of Western medical terms to represent traditional Chinese concepts is a major tendency in Chinese medical translation. The argument in favor of this practice is that the Western reader is offered a familiar concept or at least one that he look up in a Western medical dictionary. “风火眼” as “acute conjunctivitis” is an example of a western medical equivalent.
4.4 Creating Terms
A “created term” is a new expression. It may be a compound of existing words or fusion of word or morphemes to form a new word. Compounds of existing words are common in the common language and technical languages. These occur very commonly in Chinese medicine and are easily duplicated in English. Thus, for example, “风寒头痛” is naturally rendered as “wind-cold headache”, “三焦” as “triple burner”, and “梅核气” as “plum pit qi”.
4.5 Borrowing Foreign Expressions
Translators of Chinese medical terminology borrow expressions from Latin and from Chinese in the form of Pinyin transliteration.
4.5.1 Latin
The main proponent of Latin terminology is Manfred Porkert, who renders many basic terms of Chinese medicine in Latin counterparts. Latin pharmaceutical names of Chinese drugs have not been fully standardized. The use of Latin pharmaceutical names as equivalents for Chinese medicinal substances is generally considered a case apart. Many Chinese drugs do not have natural English equivalents, and the system developed by pharmacognosists of deriving a Latin name from the scientific nomenclature is probably the most widely used, such as “紫草”, whose full Latin Pharmaceutical name would be “Lithospermi, Macromotiae, seu Onosmatis Radix.” But English terms should be better because of their ease of spelling and pronunciation, their greater communicativeness, and their convenience of use in the clinical context.
4.5.2 Pinyin
The most majority of the words or expressions of any language in the world have corresponding ones in the languages of other countries, and they reflect the things and phenomena shared by all the nations of the world. However, there are still some words and expressions in a language reflecting the things and thoughts peculiar to this nation and so they have no equivalents in other languages. For example, “li(礼)” in the Confucianism and “yin and yang” in TCM in Chinese. There is only a small percentage of such kind of words and expressions in a language. But they are the symbols for distinguishing one culture from another. How to translate such kind of words and expressions? Translating with Chinese pinyin is a reasonable way to avoid misunderstandings. For example, “道” as “dao” and “气” as “qi”.
Translating the basic concepts in TCM with Chinese pinyin has its own advantages. Because the concepts constitute the basic system of TCM, run through all the theories and practices of TCM and can manifest the characteristics of the ontology, epistemology and methodology of TCM in the greatest degree. In addition, they contain unique and deep implications and cognition scheme, which are different from those in western culture. If we blindly search for their equivalents in target culture, it will not only distort their meanings and implications but also mislead readers. The most serious consequence is to naturalize the elementary theories and methods of TCM into the category of western medicine, and thus TCM will lose its characteristics and even cause its integration of the theoretical system, which will not only influence the full play to the special clinical function of TCM, but also possibly mislead the development of TCM to a wrong way.
While no translation is possible because of the absence of a common language equivalent or the inability to create a new term, we can borrow from the Chinese. But it should be pointed out that translating with Chinese pinyin is not a way of avoiding difficulties in the English translation of TCM.
4.6 Abbreviation and Notation
It is a way of simplifying the English versions of some words and expressions of TCM through other translation methods. Usually these words and expressions cannot be translated with terminology of western medicine. For example, “exogenous febrile disease(伤寒)”, “seasonal febrile disease(温病)”, and “traditional Chinese medicine(中医)” can be simplified as EFD, SFD and TCM through initialism.
Abbreviations such as PBCRS for Promoting Blood Circulation by Removing Stasis as a translation for “活血化瘀” have been suggested by some writers. Alphanumeric notations, i.e., combinations of abbreviation and numbers, are widely used to represent needle insertion points. In alphanumeric notation, the points “承泣”, “四白”, “巨髎”, for example, are rendered in English as ST-1, ST-2, and ST-3 respectively.
Although abbreviation and notation are not used so commonly at present, it has vast vistas for translating the terminology of TCM without equivalents in English in the process of standardizing the English translation of TCM.
In the translation practices, the above mentioned translation strategies and skills can be used separately, but in many cases they are used in a combined way and also with other commonly-used translation methods.#p#分页标题#e#
V. Conclusion
TCM has a long history over 5000 years. It is a summary of the experience of the laboring people over many centuries of struggle against disease. For thousands of years it has played an important part in curing disease and protecting the health of the Chinese people, thus contributing greatly to the growth and prosperity of China, as well as to the world-wide medical knowledge.
With the increasing culture exchanges between Western world and China, more and more Chinese culture are introduced abroad as the representative of Oriental world. Especially TCM is popular in Western for its holistic treatment system and efficiency. It is the Westerners’ interesting about TCM that attract many foreign specialists coming to China for TCM study. Thereby, the TCM translation becomes a need in the contemporary era. Compared with fervor of TCM, the present state of TCM translation is disappointing. Misunderstanding of TCM terms, illogic translation and culture shock, all of these can be found in the microscope of careful researching. The above make the obstacles for the development of TCM.
In this paper, the existing problems in the English translation of TCM have been carefully stated, which is followed by the basic translating principles and main translating strategies and skills. All these, especially the strategies and skills are intended to facilitate the faithful translation of traditional Chinese medical text and provide access to the full body of traditional Chinese medical knowledge in all of its historical dimensions. They are desirable for developing an efficient transmission mechanism for TCM; it is more necessary because of the speculative nature of traditional Chinese medical concepts, diversified definitions, and the broader need in a discipline that looks back to antiquity as a golden age, to reflect adequately in the translation of the terminology of TCM. In the process of translating TCM, it would enable a gradually growing body of translation of many traditional and modern texts of TCM to form an integrated whole and finally achieve standardization.
In the process of the standardization of the English translation of TCM, we must be quite clearly aware of the following facts: firstly, to standardize the English
translating of TCM is a problem which must be solved; secondly, the standardization of the English translation of TCM cannot be completed within a short time, but is supposed to be realized gradually; thirdly, the standardization of the English translation of TCM should mainly be carried on by the people who are skilled in both TCM and English; fourthly, the standardization of the English translation of TCM must pass through the stages of making preparations, collecting all the useful opinions, gathering a large number of materials concerned and adopting finally the comprehensive scheme. In short, the standardization of the English translation of TCM is an arduous duty and it can only be accomplished through unremitting efforts of lots of researchers and scholars.
This thesis is coming to its end. The author is more concerning about disseminating an idea that the study of English translation of TCM is valuable and rewarding. A set of philosophical concepts exposed by TCM is a set of classic thinking. The more you get to know TCM, the more you will find that the seeds of originality are hiding in the theory of TCM. It can give us inspiration and enlighten us, thus leads us to differentiate, to develop, to create. The author hopes that more and more people will work at the study of English translation of TCM so as to achieve the noble goal of defending the health of people all over the world.
Bibliography
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