|
Ⅰ.Introduction
The understanding of diction varies considerably. In literary criticism, the term “diction” is often understood to denote the lexical aspect of style. Diction can simply mean the totality for lexical choices found in a given text or group of texts; but more often, it refers to the patterns of lexical choice, So diction, or lexical options, is the way writers choose words to express their ideas clearly and effectively in the appropriate context and situation. When we say, “the pen is mightier than the sword”, we do mean that words have some power. A large vocabulary alone, however, does not make one’s words powerful. It is one’s stock of vocabulary and the skill to employ words exactly in the right place that gives one the ability to influence with power.
The wealth of synonyms, the subtle emotional shades of meaning between the so-called synonymous words are the different meaning coverage together with the rhetorical colors, are all problems we should cope with before our making choice. Below is a detailed discussion on the three pairs of basic concepts that are often confronted in the process of word choice.
Ⅱ.General or Specific Words
2.1 The Different Categories of General and Specific Words
“General” and “Specific” are terms, which are both opposite and relative. Nouns are general when they signify groups or classes of persons, things, events; they are specific when they refer to an individual among a certain class of group. Adjectives and adverbs are general when they describe features or qualities common to many; they are specific when these features or qualities are particularized. Verbs are general when they indicate the broad nature of an activity; they are specific when they state the actual nature of that activity. The conception of “general” and “specific” are relative in the sense that a word may be general compared with another, and be specific when compared with yet another, For instance, the word “car” is specific when compared with “vehicle”, but is general in relation to “jeep” “walk” is specific when compared with “move”, but is general in relation to “stroll”, “totter”, and “stalk”.
2.2 The Choice between General and Specific Words
Textbooks on writing often advise Students to use specific words instead of general ones, but it must be acknowledged that general and specific words are not good or bad in themselves. Some context or situation demands generalities and others may prefer specific terms. But for most learner writers, to be specific usually means to be clear, vivid and expressive in their writing.
A number of experts in language teaching also lay stress on the need of choosing specific words in description. Linguists Brook and Warier say in “Modern Rhetoric” that specific words are more lively and impressive, and tend to call forth clear mental images. In their opinion, the sentence “He saw a ship on the horizon” cannot stimulate readers’ imagination because the word “ship” is too general and vague to depict a vivid image. Instead, if it is replaced by words such as “yatch” or “schooner”, it will read more effectively and attractively. Another famous linguist E. Nida points out that in description or translation, general words are some-what abstract, and therefore, inaccurate in conveying exact ideas. They lack the kind of color and vigor that characterize specific words, and will hinder successful display of ideas. For example, the following pairs of sentences:
1. Mr. Bunny looked at the vegetables before him.
2. Mr. Bunny gazed dismally at the vegetables before him.
3. In spring, the weather in Beijing can be very nasty.
4. It is often dry and windy here in spring. With those more specific expressions, sentence 2 and sentence 4 are more effective and informative.
In the choice of words, Chinese and English writings differ in the preference for general or specific words, displaying the difference between holistic intuitive thinking and the dichotomous logical thought pattern. In the Chinese holistic view, the whole is prior to the part. Reflected in the choice of words, general and big words, which only express the main idea but not the detail, are favored. Besides, holistic thinking stresses harmony. To maintain harmonious relations, general words are chosen because they are inaccurate and obscure in meaning, which reduces the chance of objection. Conversely, English writing advocates using specific and concrete words rather than abstract, general and big words. Thinking in dichotomy, native speakers emphasize the separation of one thing from another. Besides, the requirement for exact specific concrete words in English writing reflects native English-speakers’ logical thought pattern. In their view, writing, as the way to express thought, should manifest the writer’s logical thinking, which would definitely lead to accurateness. In the aspect of diction, the specific and concrete words that are exact for certain occasion are employed to accurately convey meaning. By English criteria, specific words and concrete words are the effective ways to achieve vividness because they are more clear-cut, more interesting, and more moving than general words. By using specific, concrete words, the writer can present a particular picture before the reader, exposing his clear and careful thinking. General or abstract words are considered vague and can suggest the writer as a careless thinker and observer, or his incapability of using words accurately. In all, different tendencies towards the choice of words manifest the division of the aim of writing between two languages, which is also the division in the ways of thinking between Chinese and the native English-speakers.
Ⅲ. Denotation or Connotation
3.1 The Different Emotional Shades They Carry
Words are only symbols, names for things or ideas. Denotation refers to the thing pointed to by a word, rather than feelings or ideas connected with it. Connotation is implied and suggested, usually not defined in the dictionary. It refers to the emotional response stimulated by associations the word carries with it. “Home”, for example, denotes a place where we live, whereas by connotation it suggests warmth, security, love and comfort. The denotative meaning of word is offered in the dictionary, but the connotative meaning of a word, its emotional associations it evokes cannot be found in dictionaries. So it is more subtle and difficult to handle.
3.2 A Few More Words on Connotation
From the point view of semantics, words are said to have denotative and connotative meaning. The denotative meaning of a word is its basic dictionary definition –what the word means to all who knows it, that is to say, denotation entry. Thus, in the commonest use of the word “orchid”, the denotation is “any of a number of related plants having flowers with three petals, two enlarged and irregular in form”. This is just a bare, factual definition without emotional suggestions. All nouns, verb, adjectives, and adverbs have denotative meanings that form the basis of their use for language communication.
However important denotation may be, our understanding of a word is not complete if we know only to what it may refer. In our mother tongue what a word communicates to us is also partly the product of associations, linguistic and non-linguistic, that have been built up through our previous experience of the word. This aspect of meaning is usually called “connotation”. These meanings often differ with individuals or groups and so cannot be put into dictionaries. Connotation has emotional overtones because they reflect the attitude of an individual or group toward a word. Therefore, if you respond emotionally to a word, it has a connotative meaning for you. The term “associated meaning” is also applied to this language phenomenon because our reason for having emotional attitude toward a word is that we associate it with some public event or situation or with some private event in our lives. For example, the words skinny and slender have the same denotative meaning “thin”, but they differ in connotative meaning. Skinny has negative association, or connotation, and is an uncomplimentary word, while slender has positive connotation and is a complementary word. In the same way, animals and objects have different connotations in different cultures. In English, a hawk is considered to be warlike, a dove peaceful, a mule stubborn, and a donkey patient. Color connotations also differ very much from one picture to another. To English-speaking people, for example, green may be associated with the following:
a) A traffic light we have the green light.
b) Lack of experience Wars are not won with a green born in command.
c) Envy He was absolutely green (with envy) when he saw my new car.
d) Skill in gardening (a green thumb) Mr. Smith has a green thumb; his roses are always beautiful.
e) Flourishing or vigorous Ernest always kept green the memory of his dead father.
From above examples, we can see readily that words vary widely in their connotative value. What a word really means to an individual may depend partly on his point of view and not just on its core definition. Connotation is related to the cultural and historical background.
3.3 The Characteristics of Connotation
In actual communication the connotative meaning of a word is more frequently used, for when speaking or writing, people seldom just give an account of events or things without any feeling or attitude attached. Instead, they tend to connote their real emotions by way of the words they choose. So we should attach more importance to connotation of words. Connotative meaning is “the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to over and above its purely conceptual content.” In other words, it is the idea or notion suggested by or associated with a word, phrase, etc. Geoffrey Leech holds that connotative meaning is the additional meaning of a concept, and that any society, class, stratum or individual can assign an extra meaning to it. In feudal society, for example, as women were oppressed and prejudiced, the word “woman” acquired a number of negative connotations: “frail”, “prone to tears”, “emotional”, “inconsistent”, etc.#p#分页标题#e#
Typically, connotative meaning can boil down to the following characteristics:
3.3.1 Connotations will vary From Individual to Individual
As observed earlier, connotative meaning relies upon conceptual meaning; “connotations are apt to vary from age to age, and from society to society. It is equally obvious that connotations will vary, to some extent, from individual to individual…”. For example, for most people, “home” suggests a touch of warmth and comfort, as in “There is no place like home,” “East or west, home is best”, etc. But for those who are not happy about their families, this word may well suggest the other way around.
3.3.2 Different Connotative Meaning as Different Language Communities
In different language communities, some words may be of more or less the same connotative meaning. In both Chinese and English, for instance, “fox” connotes cunningness while “lamb” implies mildness. This universality is possible because the connotation of a word (expert the culture-specific word) sometimes derives from the characteristics that the word represents.
3.3.3 Connotative Meaning is Indeterminate and Open-ended
A word may acquire more connotations in the process of its use. For some words, the original connotative meanings attached to them may give way to new ones over a period of time. The word “traditional” is a case in point. Formerly, this word connoted something handed down by previous generations. Nowadays, however, this connotation has deadened in favor of connoting something out-dated.
The connotation of a word is constantly changing. For instance, the word “propaganda” once suggested “a reliable and trustworthy source of information”, now it implies slanting and deception. “Sly” once meant skillful; but it, as more commonly used now, implies trickery, even criminal. In addition, connotations vary with the contexts in which the word is used.
3.4 Synonyms with Different Connotations
English is rich in synonyms, but there are, in fact, few or no exact synonyms because words with the same denotations may be very different, even converse in connotation. For instance, “dumb” and “mute” may seem identical to us Chinese. Yet “dumb” conveys a negative meaning of not being wise, so we say “the deaf and mute school” but not “the deaf and dumb school”. “Statesman” and “politician” have the same denotative meaning-a politician or government leader. In connotation, however they are converse. “Statesman” is complimentary, referring to “a man who is wise and fair-minded in dealing with political affairs”, while “politician” is often used in a derogatory sense, implying “a person who plays politics for the benefit of his party or personal purpose or gain”. Thus, if you call a statesman “politician”, it will end to be thought of as an insult or humiliation toward him.
To conclude, both denotation and connotation are important aspects of the meaning of a word. The awareness of the distinction between them helps to make sure “a proper word in its proper place.” Literal.
Ⅳ. Meaning or Figurative Meaning
4.1 The Difference between Literal Meaning and Figurative Meaning
It is rather difficult to give an exact definition to the term “literal meaning”. It is contrasted with “figurative meaning” and generally refers to the original or direct meaning of a word. In most cases, it overlaps with its denotative meaning. Take the word “chair” for example, its literal meaning is “a piece of furniture on which one person can sit.” Besides, it was several other literal meanings such as “the office, position, or seat of someone in charge of meeting”, “seat of authority”. On the whole, these other literal meanings are all closely related to, and can be inferred from the first one, as they possess the same semantic properties.
When a word is used metaphorically in some way other than its usual meaning to make a word picture or comparison, it will acquire its configurative meaning. A case in point is the word “plough”. It literally refers to “a farming tool used to break up or turn over (land)”. But the sentence “He ploughed through the dull book to the end” shows a figurative use of it in the meaning “to force a way or make a track”. For the same reason, the expression “He has green fingers” does not really mean that his fingers are green, only that he is good at gardening. Usually, the figurative meaning of an expression cannot be inferred from its literal meaning. Some knowledge of its cultural background is needed in order to interpret and use it appropriately.
4.2 Cultivate Sensibilities to Figurative Expressions
Hartwell once gave an amusing example in “Open to language” to illustrate the distinction between literal meaning and figurative meaning.
A college professor tells of talking with a foreign student in her office when a colleague stopped in to ask about a problem. “It’s taken care of ”, she replied, “I chewed him out, and it won’t happen again.” “You mean”, gasped the student incredulously. “That you bit him?”
The reason for the foreign student to pose such a funny question is that he is unable to recognize the figurative usage of “chew out”. It is commonly rather demanding for non-native English learners to correctly comprehend figurative expirations. Fortunately, a good many up-to-date dictionaries have already included the figurative usage of some words and expressions. The above case also indicates that failing to recognize and understand figurative expressions will lead to misunderstanding, even failure in exchange. Hence, it is crucial for non-native learners to develop the awareness of the distinction between literal and figurative meaning of words for the purpose of putting each word and expressions in proper use. The skillful use of figurative words or expressions will contribute to bring out vivid and striking writings. To achieve this, a thorough knowledge of English culture and its working is requisite.
Words are the tools of the trade. Without a sizable vocabulary, you are handicapped in understanding your reading and in expressing yourself effectively. One of the difficulties in writing is the choice of words that best allows you to express your thoughts to your readers. That choice is always made according will give you the right word. It can only tell you what meanings a word generally has. You have to decide for yourself that, if any, of these meanings meets your needs. Therefore it will be useful to take into consideration the following two qualities: appropriateness and exactness. That is to say, good writing demands its diction appropriate on its occasion and exact in meaning. Unless you arm yourself with an adequate vocabulary and keep increasing it as your experience widens and your thoughts become more complex, will you never win the battle to express yourself clearly and forcefully? Words half learned will result in imperfect comprehension and inaccurate expression.
By analyzing problems in students’ compositions, this part is intended to give some suggestion about how to choose words effectively and avoid the pitfalls that imperil most students who seek to express themselves accurately and forcefully.
Lexical problems in students’ writing
The following sentences are abstracted from students’ compositions:
① my biggest wish is to through CEB4in my first school year.
② Twenty-five years ago, he was discarded ruthly by the society.
③ She misses her house very much.
④ to read each other’s composition is a good way to avoid this defect.
⑤ the area is composed fresh air.
⑥ we all burst into laughing.
Obviously, mistakes exist in each sentence. Example ① shows us the writer’s meager vocabulary. Some kinds of diction problems may be attributed to a writer’s small repertoire of words from which to those words he knows well and uses correctly through those words he is familiar with but does not use, and those words the writer misuses because he does not really understand them. Example ① belongs to the first. The writer is familiar with “through”, so he unconsciously writes it out. As to the third, example ② gives us detailed explanation. Some student writers often misuse a word they have wish to sound learned, They attempt to use a word they have heard or read, but because they don’t understand it, they use it inappropriately. “Discard” means to get rid of as useless while the writer wants to express “25 years ago, he became a social outcast.”
A writer’s lexical choice involves his ability to recognize nuances, connotations, multiple meanings, and levels of formality. In example ③, the writer may not be able to recognize that house and home, though partially synonymous, differ in both meaning and connotation since home carries with it associations of warmth, affection, safety, and so on, while house does not. Similarly, inexperienced writers often undeliberately mix slang with formal language, either because they are not aware of the conventions that guide a particular type of discourse, or because their vocabularies are limited and they do not know the appropriate words for the context, or because, as suggested earlier, they are trying to conform to an unfamiliar style. Rhetorical awareness affects diction, too since consciousness of audience, purpose and subject enables writers to make lexical decision appropriate for their goals.#p#分页标题#e#
Example ④,⑤ and ⑥ show the usage errors of diction. The term “usage” means different things to different writers about language. For some, usage refers to the use of the correct word or form of a word. For others, usage errors include fragments, fused sentences, and comma splices-errors we will discuss in the next chapter. Shagginess offers one of the more useful definitions of what we mean by usage errors; she refers to “errors that do not seriously impair meaning” (1977:90) Though our categories of usage errors do not correspond exactly with her “common errors”, we find it helpful to employ her definition as we survey the wide range of serious and not-so serious usage problems. Here usage errors include incorrect collocation of words, such as in example ④, ⑤ and ⑥.
Good diction, which means the choice of proper words for the expression of thoughts, demands something more than good usage. A word may be used in a certain place quite correctly and yet somehow is not exact word. “We commence/begin”. It’s a common experience with a writer of English that he cannot think of a word that fits precisely the idea in his mind, and so he has to content himself with using a word that he regards as being the nearest one. This is often due to his ignorance of the word required. For instance, when one who does not know the word “sparrow” sees some sparrows outside his “windowsill” which he does not know, either, he cannot use “sparrow, windowsill”, which are exact words, but has to content himself with using “bird, place”. He may say “Some birds made noises outside of my place” instead of “some sparrows made noises on my windowsill”.
In a word, students’ mistakes arise from their incomplete knowledge of words, particularly from incomplete knowledge of the elements of connotation, formality and rhetorical appropriateness.
Ⅴ. Analysis and Discussion
Cohesion has been widely studied in the assessment of the quality of student essays. Connor and laurwe (1985:309) conducted a study by using a linguistic approach to investigate several measures for discerning and evaluating student persuasive essays written by American and British high-school students. The measurement variables were coherence, cohesion, syntactic features and persuasive appeals. Connor and laurwe (1985:312) defined cohesion as "the linking of studences together using surface items " and applied Halliday and Hasan's (1976) system in studying the correlation between cohesion and writing quality is very complex with the suggestion of extending the analyses to other essays edited by students from different cultures. Therefore, the following study explored the use of cohesion in Chinese students' argumentative essays from such five as exacts as discourse markers, references, substitutions, ellipses, conjunctions and lexical cohesion.
5.1 Discourse Markers
Discourse markers are the top-level signals to show transitions between paragraphs or sentences. Students have show that the use of top-level discourse signals has a significant effect on a reader in understanding the communicative intentions of the writer.
The students' use of discourse markers is probably influences mainly by the classroom teaching of English writing rather than that of Chinese composition writing because the students have been well-informed that "in English composition, paragraphs are relate to sequenced by form linkage rather than by semantic coherence." (Zhu Yong sheng ， 2001：68)
However, thought the students employed some discourse markers skillfully in their sample essays, there were still underdeveloped ideas clustered in one paragraph or unrelated points distributed in different paragraph. In that case, the standard "firstly, secondly" format, i.e. the linear pattern in these sample essays is just the mechanical imitation of English rhetorical structure. by interview with the students, it is found that in their minds, English rhetoric structure always consists of the same sequence of paragraphs, the same development structure within paragraph such as a topic followed by specifics, and the same transitional words without the consideration of semantic meaning. Therefore, most of the students followed a seemingly linear pattern on the surface level but still applied their L1 (Chinese) argument pattern on the local management or semantic level.
5.2 References
A frequent search by using Longman mini-concordance indicated that most of the references were either personal pronoun like "we", "I" or demonstrative pronounces like "this", "it". The reason for the high frequency use of "this" consists in the different semantic understanding of the word between Chinese and English. "Firstly, 'this ' in Chinese might be used to refer to the words said by other people pr the matters mentioned above; while in the case of English, 'that' is often used. Secondly, in Chinese, this may point to the above-mentioned events that happened before long; reversely, that is necessary to be used in English. And thirdly, when the speaker indicated the statement in the above text, this is commonly used, with the influence of Chinese, the students is liable to use this more frequently in their English argumentative essays."
5.3 Ellipses or Substitution
"Sometimes people can make a sentence shorter by omitting one or more words to achieve brevity to avoid repetition" (Hu Zhuanglin，1994：84) This is called ellipsis.
As we know, ellipsis is a kind of rhetorical manners that can make expressions brief, tight and clear by evading unnecessary repetitions. During communication, ellipsis will not cause the difficulty in understanding; on the contrary, it will raise the efficacy of expressions. For example,
"Besides the long history they have, the well-equipped liberations, the libraries with millions of books in them and the famous professors are all attractive to both native and foreign students."
The frequency in the use of ellipses can be traces back to the Chinese parataxis in culture, where the combination or connection of words or sentences can be realized by their semantic coherence, but not any other language forms.
Substitution refers to replacing one component in the context with a substitute, either in grammar or in rhetoric. Substitution is regarded as an important language instrument to avoid reputations. For example, "by doing so, a college can have more money to improve the living conditions for students and have more books in library."
The low frequency in the use of substitution is because that the appearance rate of substitution in Chinese is lower than that in English. In most cases, the way of repeating original words is often used to realize the textual cohesion in Chinese.
5.4 Conjunctions
A conjunction connects words, phrases, and clauses. The most frequently used conjunctions were “and, so and but”. It is because the students are more familiar with the simple conjunctions and prefer to apply them as a coherent manner in their writing construction.
A further examination of the sample essays also revealed there might be an overuse of the conjunctions likes so. “But”, “and” and “or” misuse of conjunctions, which confirmed the study by Milton. The overuse of conjunctions in Chinese EFl student writers' essays in English requires special attention because it will, instead of help, hinder the communicative quality of a written text by misleading the reader. For example,
"If we say it is unfair, it is perhaps unreasonable. Because they have to pay price for their knowledge and information acquired. If they pay for no price, this is unfair. Of course, if the nation of the area is sufficient development, they can pay no fee for their studies. But this is because the nation or area has paid for them."
In the above extracts, the overuse of "if" is due to the misunderstanding of English conjunctions. According to the students, they have been taught that the cohesion and logic in English rest upon the use of cohesive manners like conjunctions. Therefore, subjectively, they may assume that the more conjunctions are involved, the better their English essays are.
The misuse of "so" in the last sentence implies the misunderstanding of its employment on expressing semantic relationship/ to Chinese, "so" means "and then" and mostly indicates a further step; while in English, "so " refers to "thus", "as a result", a kind of "cause and effect' semantic relationship. The misuse or overuse of conjunctions illuminates that the capacity of students' using conjunctions is deficient.
Furthermore, it is found that there is not much use of more sophisticated or complex conjunctions in students' essays such as "however", "moreover", which indicated that compared with coordinating conjunctions, students are less familiar with subordinating conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs because of their lower use frequency.
Ⅵ. Conclusion
Generally speaking, the factors of using these rhetorical dictions in Chinese students’ English writings are various and complex because writing involves a very complicated process.
Writing is central to the AP English courses and exams. Both courses have two goals: to provide you with opportunities to become skilled, mature, critical readers, and to help you to develop into practiced, logical, clear, and honest writers. In AP English, writing is taught as "process" --- that is, thinking, planning, drafting the text, then reviewing, discussing, redrafting, editing, polishing, and finishing it. It's also important that AP students learn to write "on call" or "on demand." Learning to write critical or expository essays on call takes time and practice.#p#分页标题#e#
Here are some key guidelines to remember in learning to write a critical essay:
①Take time to organize your ideas.
②Make pertinent use of the text given to you to analyze.
③Quote judiciously from the text to support your observations.
④Be logical in your exposition of ideas.
If you acquire these skills---organizing ideas, marshalling evidence, being logical in analysis, and using the text judiciously -- you should have little trouble writing your essays on the AP Exam. Practice in other kinds of writing -- narrative, argument, exposition, and personal writing---all have their place alongside practice in writing on demand.
As you study and practice writing, consider the following points:
①Reading Directly Influences Writing Skills & Habits
②Reading and writing are intertwined. When you read what published authors have written you are immersed not just in their ideas, but also in the pulsing of their sentences and the aptness of their diction. The more you read the more that the rhythm of the English language will be available to influence your writing. Reading is not a substitute for writing, but it does help lay the foundation that makes good writing possible.
③Writing is Fun. When you have penned what you think is a great sentence or a clean, logical paragraph, read it over to yourself out loud. Enjoy it. Delight in the ideas, savor the diction, and let the phrases and clauses roll around in your mind. Claim it as part of your self. You may discover you have a voice worthy of respect.
④A Tip from E. M. Forster. He is reputed to have said that he never knew clearly what it was he thought until he spoke it; and once he had said it, he never knew clearly what it was that he said until he had written it down. Then, Forster noted, he could play with it and give it final form. Be like Forster: think, speak, write, analyze your writing, and then give it final shape.
Diction refers to the works’ choice of words, among the available alternatives, in the service of a given effect. Two concepts are fundamental to the analysis of diction: first, that synonym exist, and second, that they carry slightly different meanings. Take the word 'skinny', for example, and compare it with such words as 'thin' and 'slender'. The denotation of each is generally the same, but each has a different connotation. 'Skinny’ refers to a person who is unpleasantly thin, while 'slender' refers to a person who is charmingly thin, and 'thin' can go either way. Such differences aren't quite as crucial in speaking as they are in writing, for when one speaks one can produce the proper connotations by facial expression and tone of voice, but when one writes one must choose one's words with extreme care in order to convey the right impression.
Word choice is essential for English writing, yet to use words properly is not just a matter of knowing as many words as possible, but also involves a clear understanding of the various shades or colors of words under choice. Only when we have a thorough and profound knowledge of the development of English language as well as its background culture, can we employ each freely to achieve our purpose.
Bibliography
[1] Gikd.I.J. A Study of Writing.Chicago. The University of Chicago Press, 1963.
[2] Richards,J.Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics. Beijing: World Publishing Corporation, 1989.
[3] Sction Lenoars F.M.Written Language and Psychological Development.
NewYork: Academic Press, 1986.
[4] Whorf. A Contrastive Study of Refusal Strategies between English and Chinese, 1994.
[5] 陈定安.《英汉比较与翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998.
[6] 丁往道，吴冰. 《英语写作手册》.外语教学语研究出版社，1992.
[7] 黄任. 《英语修辞与写作》. 上海外语教育出版社, 1996.
[8] 李学珍.《语言概论》.济南：山东大学出版社，1999.
[9] 李鑫华.《英语修辞格详论》.上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000.
[10] 余立三.《英汉修辞比较与翻译》. 商务印书馆，1985.
[11] 王俊菊.《英语写作认知心理研究》.山东大学出版社，2005.
[12] 朱跃.《英语与社会》.合肥：安徽大学出版社，1999.
|
 |
|||
| 网站地图 |
