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牛津高级学习词典将培训定义为学习你需要做的工作的过程。培训是用来准备员工在他们的能力，可以充分利用他们的工作进展。
长期以来，培训一直是管理教育文献中的一个研究课题。员工培训与发展（人力资源开发）已经成为一个重要的教育事业在过去的三年左右，因为在员工的工作场所的需求，在各级，在目前的工作，提高绩效，获取技能和知识，做新的工作，并继续在不断变化的世界的工作职业进展。雇主组织直接依赖于他们的工作能力和生产力的生存在挑战经济竞争的世界地位。技术变化，经济变化，人口变化，和其他力量不断创造新的需求，学习的劳动力。
Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (2005) defines training as a process of learning the skills that you need to do a job. Training is used to prepare employees for advancement in their jobs where their capacities can be utilized to the fullest extent possible. National Academy of Public Administration (NAPA) (1992) stated that rather than select high-potential first and then develop them, organizations will be more successful if they develop first, and then select.
Training has been a subject of study in the management and education literature for a long time. Employee training and development (human resource development) has emerged as a major educational enterprise in the past three decades or so because of demand in the workplace for employee, at all levels, to improve performance in their present jobs, to acquire skill and knowledge to do new jobs, and to continue their career progress in a changing world of work. Employer organizations depend directly on the competence and productivity of their work force for survival in the challenge economic competition of the world place. Technological change, economic change, demographic change, and other forces continually create new needs for learning by the work force (Craig,1987).
Training is an integral part of any organization. There are a few advantages of training been said by the authors. There are:
increases worker productivity by improving their ability to do their current job.
increases worker job satisfaction by decrease of turnover rate because employer offer on-going training to his workforce so that the employee has an ability to do their current job.
keeps workers up to date because training will expose them to the current technology and skills needed to deal with it.
helps to motivate workers up to date because training will expose them to the current technology and skills needed to deal with it.
helps to motivate workers because in some organizations they will reward their employees after their employees attended the training courses (Aminuddin, 2000).
Chi and Tao (2003) stated that training is one of the most important strategies for organization to help employees gain proper knowledge and skill to meet the environmental challenges. Training is the process that can only be mastered through experience and practices. They also add that continuous improvement is important to the training process as it is to the more tangible and visible areas of manufacturing and administration. The researcher also content that training is a simply an additional avenue for enhancing the total financing return on investment rather than detracting from the importance of employee training program. It can provide training manager with the kind of credibility essential to success.
Training is an important and costly event in the array of programs included in a company's human resource department (Golnaz & Peggy, 1995). in the past research Westhead (1998), state that the training and education support is now one of the leading measures to increase the skill level of workforce, to ensure stronger long term national economic performance, and to improve employee motivation (Heyes & Stuart, 1995).
Training is important to organization. An informal training like train-the-trainer approach can be effective. According to Sommella (2009), an individu or small group of reliable instructors and reward them with an off-site training; they in turn will be the facilitators for the site-based staff development. this option will build the self-esteem and confidence of staff and increase the organization's collegial power. Educators are learners searching for the constant prospect of improvement, but those opportunities must have focus to be meaningful. Professional development must reach beyond the transfer of classroom skills and knowledge and move toward a systematic and reflective practice. Most districts have the resources from within to communicate, inspire, and motivate other staff.
2.4.4 Career Development
Career development strategies are an integral component of talent management; the recruitment, development, and retention of human resources. Career development processes may affect employee engagement, retention, and succession strategies (Beever, 2008). Employees will stay longer and perform better if the organization strives to give them career development opportunities (Tarasco & Damato, 2006).
Career development focuses on the enhancement of human resources. Current literature has suggested that skilled employees are fast becoming the insufficient source, and career development processes can improve employee recruitment and maintenance efforts (Rothwell, 2005).
Career management strategies are most effective when integrated with other priorities, such as strategic planning and succession planning (Beever, 2008). A properly selected, well-trained, and heavily committed workforce makes it easy to build a succession planning programs that taps into internal talent (Rothwell et al.,2005).
In the past, the term 'career' is one that has usually been applied to managerial and professional workers. Many organizations responded to the career aspirations such employees through HRP policies and processes such as succession planning, secondment, 'fast-track' development for identified 'high flyers' and a vast array of personal and management development activities (Bratton & Gold, 1999).
While organizations were structured into a number of hierarchical levels and grades, such employees could look forward to a path of promotion that signified the development of their careers. Of course, along the way, many employees might encounter blocks to their careers such as lack of opportunities and support, and for women, cultural and structural prejudices to career progress referred to as the 'glass ceiling' (Davidson and Cooper, 1992).
During the 1980's, with the growing influence of ideas relating to a people-oriented human resource management (HRM), reflecting the unitarist perspective on the employment relationship of a common interest between the organization and employees, many organizations began to extend career development activities to a wider range of employees.
We might question whether the idea of a career can be extended to a larger number of employees. After all, not everyone can be 'promoted' through the organization hierarchy even if they had the potential to be so. This is a view that is often presented to justify the status quo and to limit the resources devoted to employee development.
However, it is a view based on a traditional concept of career. As many organizations have discovered, continuous personal development is possible among large groups of employees if limiting factors that prevent the exposure of employees to new opportunities and experiences for development can be removed. Limiting factors may term 'career' is extended to apply not only to movement through pre-defined stages such as those found in professions or organization hierarchies, but also to personal growth and development through the employees' interaction with their work environment. This view matches Hirsh's (1990, p.18) developing potential emergent model of succession planning where'in a personal-based approach, posts can be considered as ephemeral and may be designed around people.
A review of the literature also suggested that career development processes can improve employee moral and job satisfaction, leading to improved performance. Further, improved engagement may facilitate succession efforts employees are motivated to develop their skills in order to be promoted within the organization. Common barriers to successful career development programs include lack of organization leadership, lack of resources and a short-term version (Cambron, 2001).
Career development also affects employee engagement. Expectations have changed; employees no longer view training and development as a benefit, but rather an expectation (Boomer, 2008). Barbara Bowes (2008), a vice president with Legacy Partners, an executive recruitment organization, contended that career development is a vital organization strategy that facilitates internal promotion and succession planning by improving employee productivity and retention.
Larry Cambron (2001), the president of Asia operations of Drake Beam and Morin, stated that a concerted focus on employee career development by organizations leads to reduce turn-over, improved motivation, increased satisfaction, and more effective succession planning. Effective career development strategies help organizations manage one of the most integral assets: their people. To facilitate career management, Drake Beam & Morin (as cited in Cambron, 2001) outlined the following practices:#p#分页标题#e#
1. Placing clear expectations and employees so that they know what is expected of them throughout their careers with the organization;
2. Giving employees the opportunity to transfer to other office locations, both domestically and internationally;
3. Providing a clear and thorough plan to employees;
4. Encouraging performance through rewards and recognition;
5. Giving employees the time they need to consider short and long term career plans; and
6. Encouraging employees to continually assess their skills and career direction.
According to Cambron (2001), the following are typical barriers to career development and advancement within the organization:
1. Lack of time, budget, and resources for employees to plan their careers and undertake training and development;
2. Rigid job specifications, lack of leadership support for career management, and a short-term focus;
3. Lack of career opportunities and pathways within the organization for employees.
Career development allows managers to widen their skills, manages their career, retains valued employee, increase understanding of organization and enhances reputation as people developer (Eastman, 1995).
Meanwhile, competency-based career development practice is defined as the extent of development template used to enhance the employee performance in their jobs or to prepare improvements in their future tasks. The competency model is used to identify types and level of competencies required by different jobs in the service. Moreover, career ladders are developed for individual workers to match their competencies with the most suitable job competency profile. These workers have to take their own initiatives to conduct competencies gap analysis to identify the competencies they are lacking. On the other hand, the employers too, have to play their part in developing their employees' careers. Examples of activities that employers can undertake include conducting career development program to gauge employees' potential, strengths and weaknesses, developing job assignments for employees to improve their performance in their existing jobs, training and preparing employees to advance to other assignments in the future as well as providing structured mentoring program for employees (PSDM, 2004).
In Malaysian public service, every public servant has to undergo certain assessments or courses on competence according to his/her position in order to move up in his/her career path. Upward movement in the career path promises promotion and at the same time, it means salary increment. Consequently, Malaysian public servants are aware of the competencies needed by their organizations in order to move up along their career paths. Therefore, they can make early arrangements and preparations to succeed. Moreover, from the assessments and courses undergone, their level of competencies will increase and hence, this will help them to undertake and complete their tasks better especially in providing quality services to the public (PSDM, 2005).
Thus, competency based career development practice is better than the traditional one as it promotes standardization and justice for future promotion. Moreover, workers who are lacking in certain competencies can easily be identified for further training (PSDM, 2005). Placement, layout and transfer of workers also can be done systematically (Ozcelick & Ferman, 2006). Finally, job assignments and structured mentoring promise capable and prepared workers psychologically and physically in undertaking and completing their tasks.
From the previous research by Azmi, Ahmad & Zainuddin(2009), there is a positive relationship between competency based career development practice and all service quality dimensions found in the Malaysian public organizations. This shows that competency based career development practice is the best practice that should be implemented by any public organizations in Malaysia in order to obtain higher quality services.
Hirsh and Jackson (1997, p.9) refer to a 'pendulum of ownership of career development' between the organization and individual responsibility. Their research in case studies of UK organizations, found that this had swung towards emphasizing individuals in driving career and development processes with the provision of career workshops, learning centres and personal development plans (PDPs) (Tamkin et.al., 1995). At the same time, as many organizations began to engage in restructuring activities that led to the removal of layers of grades, referred to as 'delayering', the spread of career development initiatives could be seen as way of empowering and motivating staff who remained in place as part of a core workforce.
2.4.5 Reward
Lastly, competency-based reward is defined as the extent of paying for competencies or performance. This could be done by paying the employees that use or demonstrate their current level of competencies that represent high performance in their jobs or their potential to deliver in future (PSDM, 2004). It is a type of pay that rewards employees of their skills, behavior and attitude in performing job roles and not because of their jobs, functions, knowledge, responsibility, age and seniority (Hondeghem and Vandermeulen, 2000; Jahja and Kleiner, 1997). Thus, competency-based reward is expected for compensating highly skilled, competent and professional workforce. It provides an incentive for employees to grow and enhance their capabilities (Risher, 2000). It was proposed due to dissatisfaction with the traditional reward in terms of its ability to reflect and reward performance (PSDM, 2004).
Employees are one of the most important assets that a company possesses, whether it is in the manufacturing or service sector. To keep good employees the people have to be motivated by things other than titles. Furthermore, with the trend toward "flatter" organizations and fewer employees, companies need to motivate the remaining employees to make a profitable contribution while still holding them accountable for their work. Organizations can no longer afford to pay an employee whose performance does not support business strategies and organizational goals.
One of the responsibilities of human resource management is to develop alternative ways to link pay or rewards to performance. One way is through competency- based pay, in which employees are paid for their demonstrated competencies. The new pay philosophy and new pay system address an organization's needs to motivate employees and support business strategies.
Many organizations have tried to modify their traditional compensation programs, for example, by shifting and narrowing salary ranges. However, this approach does not address two important underlying issues. The first is that for many organizations, especially those changing their culture and values, traditional salary ranges no longer work, either practically or philosophically. Ranges tend to shift every year, locking employees into the same section of the range rather than allowing them to move forward. In addition, ranges often fail to differentiate top performance from just the average performance, and they tend to reward seniority rather than performance. In reality, merit increases have become merely market adjustments.
One of the reasons why companies implement rewards system is to encourage employees on learning. Through this process, the employees can strengthen their knowledge and assist the company to grow continuously. It can also support the company to meet the new competition, customers' needs and new technology. To implement the rewards system in an organization, it is important to understand different kinds of rewards system. Rewards system can be categorized into two types, that is, financial and non-financial rewards. During the process of rewards system implementation, the company needs to consider whether or not a single or different kind of rewards system motivates the employee on learning. Before the rewards system is implemented in the company, it is essential to understand the main motivational factor that drives the employee to learn as rewards system and motivational theories are often intertwined. Different kind of motivational theories have different impact on the learner due to several considerations like individual differences, type of learning, culture, etc. Hence, it is necessary for the company and its management to understand the needs of the employees in order to apply the most appropriate rewards system.
Some organizations and its people may think that money is the most effective motivator while some of them opposed this kind of thought. According to Burke and Cooper (2004, p. 26), when organisations value and reward people these people are committed to performing well. As a result, the organisation accomplishes more and it can then provide additional reward to employees and attracts and retain more talented ones. This leads to even higher organisational performance. It also involves developing a variety of HR practices that motivate people to peak performance with accompanying rewards. Staffs, in turn, are more committed to the organization and more responsible for their own behaviours (contribution, learning, development, etc.). The following information will identify the components of two different kinds of reward.
#p#分页标题#e#
Armstrong (1993) states that "A reward system contains arrangements in the form of processes, practices, structures, subsystems and procedures which will be concerned with providing and maintaining appropriate types and levels of pay, benefits and other forms of reward" (p. 1). A reward system may be used to encourage and support specific behaviours. Meanwhile, Frith (1997) stated that learning can be influenced by the reward and punishment.
Scholars and HR authors are very particular in describing the nature of a reward and its appending system. Furthermore, authors set their line of thinking on the effects of rewards or employee benefits per se to organizational productivity and job performance, regardless of which kind of rewards system that is. For example, Champion-Hughes (2001) conducted an evaluation study on employee benefits. She presented various kinds of employee benefits that will somehow affect their productivity and job performance. In relation to reward system, she stated that the organisational reward system can influence both job satisfaction and employee motivation. With this, she related the benefits of certain types of reward system like skill-based pay and pay-for-knowledge. Relating to the subject of the research, Champion-Hughes supports the initial supposition that organisational reward system influences employee motivation. What is not included in her research, however, is the specification on employee learning. Granted that she mentioned on skill-based and pay-for knowledge as kinds of reward system but she had failed to create emphasis on learning particularly in using these rewards system as motivation to learn. Thus, this research points out the relationship of such kind of rewards system especially when used as motivation towards employee learning.
The study of Allen and Helms (2002) mainly discussed on the perception of employees on the relationship of various organisational factors namely strategy, rewards, and organisational performance. Results state that reward practices affect the level of organisational performance provided that the management implements the appropriate strategy. Another result is that reward practices might be considered as strategy to create a highly productive workforce. Allen and Helms concluded that the reward system must be continually adapted to give consequent strengthening and advancement of the chosen strategy. The difficulty in this research, however, is the fact that the research design is exploratory. There is little effort of investigating the relationship between strategy, rewards, and performance.
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