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Hume休谟
指导essay 复杂的人类感知周围的现实总是许多哲学家关注的焦点。在这样一个背景下,发展问题休谟归纳了从一个nominalist的观点,根据人类所有的想法都是特定实体的想法、质量和关系,无法合理正当感应(休谟,345)。这样一来,休谟拒绝了周围的现实观点作为一个整体,而不是看他相信人实相通过特定的主题或实体他们熟悉或经历的过程中,他们的生活。与此同时,大卫•休谟注意力集中注意力集中在这一问题上的感应式推论,起到了关键作用的概念理解的感应。把它更准确的说,大卫•休谟站在地面感应是基于感应干扰。后者意味着从观察到的推理行为对象时,他们的行为来推导。
基本上,在分析感应的概念,大卫•休谟主要关注的问题——如同当他们去的事”的证据现在以外的感官,记录我们的记忆”(休谟,334)。他强调年代,人类相信事情表现在常规的方式。这正是在问题出现以来,根据休谟,人们无法合理解释,大自然将会继续被制服。因此,事情可能改变他们的行为。在这一点上,示范推理的推理和可能进入冲突。一方面,示范推理引导人们的理解,均匀化原则不能表现出来,而在另一方面,可能意味着人们不能推理认为,大自然仍是均匀的(休谟,351)。这样一来,休谟到感应的主要问题-循环推理。
事实上,大卫•休谟认为没有什么普遍的《在人间》(345)和人民所不能觉察到周围的现实作为一个整体,就像一些普遍的概念。相反,他们需要一些协会与其他他们很熟悉,他们知道根据他们的个人经历。以这样一种方式,它是可能估计大卫•休谟广泛使用联想思维的概念,这是典型的人类。因此,人们感觉周围的世界和周围的现实基础上的相关性。在这一点上,就有可能指的是大卫•休谟的想法:“我们大多数的总体思路…我们文摘,从每一个特定的程度的数量与质量》(346年)。
大卫•休谟提出他的意见争论有利于人类的推理能力,这是至关重要的概念诱导。首先,他认为这是“完全不可能设想任何数量或者质量而形成一个精确的想法的程度”(休谟,346)。换句话说,他强调,整个或一般被认为通过它的资料。
其次,大卫•休谟认为,尽管“的容量不是无限的,脑中但我们可以形成一个概念立刻所有可能的程度的数量与质量》(346年)。事实上,这个设定支持和补充上述一个基本的大卫•休谟暗示人类感知周围的世界是有限的,由人类思维的能力。
此外,大卫•休谟揭示一个悖论:“某些特定的想法是在他们的天性,但他们的代表将军》(348)。什么是这里的事实是,人们经常运行的一般概念对于周围的现实。因此,他们需要示范推理基础上的证据,他们可以做出判断的事情。在行为上然而,回到问题的循环推理,是中央传授给休谟问题,人们永远不能肯定地说,事情永远也不会改变行为的未来。#p#分页标题#e#
在这样一个背景下,休谟认为是逻辑上不可能放弃它,因为循环推理将继续不断。很明显,人们不能阻止或示范推理或可能的推理。作为一个结果,以感性阶段,人们能够观察到的事情都是统一的行为,但是,与此同时,人们总是怀疑均匀性和规律以某种方式可以改变未来。
因此,考虑到所有上面提到的,它可能会得出这样的结论:大卫•休谟站在地上,人类感知周围的现实是以资料,通过它人们可以感知周围的世界看成一个整体,但不存在一般观念和概念,因为他们可以从程度的质量和数量。这样,人类感知的现实是纯电感。与此同时,中央的问题,循环推理归纳法是阻止人们相信统一的行为的事情总是有可能的推理以来这意味着今后定期行为是可以改变的。
The complexity of human perception of the surrounding reality was always in the focus of attention of many philosophers. In such a context, Hume develops the problem of induction, which he explains from a nominalist point of view, according to which all human ideas are ideas of particular entities, qualities and relations are inductive and cannot be rationally justified (Hume, 345). In such a way, Hume rejected the view of the surrounding reality as a whole, instead he believed that people perceive the reality through particular subjects or entities they are familiar with or experienced in the course of their life. At the same time, David Hume focuses his attention on the problem of inductive inferences, which play the key part in understanding of his concept of induction. To put it more precisely, David Hume stands on the ground that induction is based on inductive interference. The latter implies reasoning from the observed behavior of objects to their behavior when unobserved.
Basically, on analyzing the concept of induction, David Hume focuses his attention on the question of how things behave when they go “beyond the present testimony of the senses, and the records of our memory” (Hume, 334). He underlines s that humans believe that things behave in a regular manner. This is exactly where the problem arise since, according to Hume, people cannot rationally justify that nature will continue to be uniform. Therefore, things can potentially change their behavior. At this point, demonstrative reasoning and probable reasoning come into clashes. On the one hand, demonstrative reasoning leads people to the understanding that uniformity principle cannot be demonstrated, while, on the other hand, probable reasoning implies that people cannot hold that nature will continue to be uniform (Hume, 351). In such a way, Hume arrives to the major problem of induction – circular reasoning.
In fact, David Hume argues that there is nothing universal in the world (345) and people cannot perceive the surrounding reality as a whole, as some universal concept. Instead, they need some associations with particulars which they are familiar with and which they know about on the basis of their personal experience. In such a way, it is possible to estimate that David Hume widely uses the concept of associative thinking which is actually typical for humans. Hence, people perceive the surrounding world and surrounding reality on the basis of associations. At this point, it is possible to refer to David Hume’s idea that “most of our general ideas… we abstract from every particular degree of quantity and quality” (346).#p#分页标题#e#
David Hume suggests several arguments in favor his views on reasoning power of humans, which are crucial for the concept of induction. First of all, he argues that it is “utterly impossible to conceive any quantity or quality without forming a precise notion of its degrees” (Hume, 346). In other words, he underlines that the whole or the general is perceived through its particulars.
Secondly, David Hume argues that though “the capacity of the mind by not infinite, yet we can at once form a notion of all possible degrees of quantity and quality” (346). In actuality, this postulates supports and complements the aforementioned one and basically David Hume suggests that the human perception of the surrounding world is limited by the capacity of human mind.
Furthermore, David Hume reveals a paradox that “some ideas are particular in their nature, but general in their representation” (348). What is meant here is the fact that people often operates with general notions in regard to the surrounding reality. Therefore, they demonstrative reasoning needs evidence on the basis of which they can make judgments on behavior of things. However, returning to the problem of circular reasoning, which is the central problem of induction to Hume, people can never be sure that the behavior of things will never change in the future.
In such a context, Hume logically argues that it is impossible to give it up because circular reasoning will keep going constantly. Obviously, people cannot stop either demonstrative reasoning or probable reasoning. As a result, at the perceptual level, people will observe behavior of things being uniform, but, at the same time, people will always doubt that the uniformity and regularity can be changed somehow in the future.
Thus, taking into account all above mentioned, it is possible to conclude that David Hume stands on the ground that the human perception of the surrounding reality is grounded on particulars, through which people can perceive the surrounding world as a whole, but there are no general notions and concepts because all of them can be viewed in degrees of quality and quantity. In such a way, human perception of the reality is purely inductive. At the same time, the central problem of induction is the circular reasoning which prevents people from believing in the uniformity of behavior of things since there is always probable reasoning which implies that in the future the regular behavior can be changed.
essay指导 Works Cited:
Hume, D. Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. New York: Penguin Classics, 2004.
Hume, D. “Reading 37: Particulars Are Real.” In Gould, J.A. and R.J. Mulvaney (Eds.). Classic Philosophical Questions. 12th ed. New York: Random House, 2006.
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