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An Easy Guide to Referencing for Academic Work Rita Newton, Marcus Ormerod 1. Introduction Correct referencing is important in academic work: for example, an assignment at undergraduate level, a doctoral thesis or a paper for publication in an academic journal. In academic writing you are required to demonstrate the body of knowledge on which your work is based and acknowledge sources of information and ideas. Failing to reference the work of others is considered by academics to be an act of intellectual theft. Whenever you use the work of others to underpin your work then you should reference the source of it. The exceptions to this are areas of common knowledge and ideas, or quotations, that are not attributable to any one source, such as sayings and folklore. Since providing relevant references gives increased credibility to the arguments you develop in your own work it is useful to reference frequently in academic writing. Plagiarism Lack of referencing could be interpreted as plagiarism of other people’s material. Plagiarism is normally taken to be: 1. The inclusion of quotations from published works, the source of which is not properly acknowledged; 2. The inclusion of passages which are closely based (in summary or paraphrase) on published material, the source of which is not properly acknowledged; 3. The inclusion of material which is identical, or virtually identical, with that of another person, including another student past or present, unless this method has been agreed by a subject tutor for a reason particular to the coursework Plagiarism is a very serious offence in the academic world and normally carries severe penalties, and could result in expulsion from the academic institution. The Harvard System of referencing The Guide sets out what is known as the Harvard system of referencing, which is one of the two main referencing systems often used. This is sometimes referred to as the Author and Date system. The other main systems are the British system and Running Notes. The British system can also be known as the Book or Numeric system. The British system relies on a numbering system with the use of Latin terms to reduce the amount of repetition of references. Each time a work is cited in the main text the reference to it has to be placed in the references section. This differs to the Harvard system in which references are only provided once alphabetically at the end off the work. Running notes uses numbers in square brackets placed in the text which correspond to a list either at the end of the chapter, or the end of the work, where each number contains the full reference. Again this requires the same reference to be repeated in the list each time it is used in the main text. It is usually easy to adapt the Harvard system to comply with the British system, or running notes. The British system and running notes are preferred by readers of books as the references are least likely to interrupt the flow of reading of the main text, but it does increase the work for the author in producing the extensive references at the end. However, the British system or running notes are not often used by researchers who favour the Harvard system because it highlights the authors referred to in the main text so increasing recognition for those cited, additionally it is easier to produce an alphabetical list of references at the end. Neither the Harvard or British system use footnotes or endnotes, as these are used for adding comments at the bottom of the page, or end of chapter, that forms additional information for the reader about a certain point in the main text. It may well be that a footnote, or endnote, contains a reference, or is based on a reference to the work of others, and should follow the system of referencing used throughout the rest of that text.#p#分页标题#e# There are many variations to the Harvard system (no organisation is responsible for this system and therefore differences in the style can appear in different guides). The aim of this Guide is, however, to simplify the complex task of referencing and the different variations are not, therefore, given in this document. This Guide is concerned mainly with referencing of published documents, although examples of referencing other material are also given. Some of the different methods of citation and referencing are now explained. Example extracts are given to show how citation and referencing takes place, these are prefaced by a heading stating that an example of... follows. After the example there is then an explanation of what is happening, in terms of referencing, given after a heading of rationale. Referencing comprises: A. Citing the sources in the main text (section 2). Both elements A and B are required for correct referencing. Omitting a reference in the first element risks being accused of plagiarism, whilst omitting it in the second is carelessness. When writing the main text it is important to insert the references in as you progress as you cite the work of other authors. The references section at the end and the bibliography can be produced either at the same time, or later, whichever is preferred. However, you should check your completed manuscript to ensure that references cited in the main text have also been included in the references section at the end, and then on into the bibliography section if this is separate (see section 3 for more the difference between references and bibliography sections).
英国Eassy Referencing格式References can be made through direct quotations from the work of others; indirectly through paraphrasing; use of images taken by others; spoken word through radio programmes; and electronic media such as web pages for instance. Quotations generally The following conventions are usually used. Example of a direct quotation: As Imrie and Hall point out, Rationale: A direct (or exact) quotation is inset and single-spaced. The author and date are given, the page number should be identified where known, and all placed within brackets to distinguish them from the quotation. Quotation marks are not used, neither are italics. Example of using a short direct quote: As Barrett and Stanley pointed out “good briefing is clearly good business.” (Barrett and Stanley 1999, p.135).#p#分页标题#e# Rationale: Using a direct quote from the authors as the example above, but because the quote is only short (a couple of lines), it is included in with your own words and is not inset separately. However, so as to distinguish it from your words, use quotation marks. Again, as this is an exact citation, page numbers should be given where known. Note that the issue of single and double quotation marks is subject to debate. Some authors only use double quotation marks for direct speech, or use them to identify quotes set within a quotation. We advocate the use of double quotation marks because screen reading software, often used by people with dyslexia and people with visual impairments, interprets single quotation marks as an apostrophe and does not therefore identify the quote when it reads out loud the written words. Example of relevant parts only of a direct quote: As Young and Urquhart point out, The provision of accessible visitor facilities … has been found to be an important factor in enhancing the attraction of properties to visitors with disabilities. The majority of [disabled] visitors … require facilities which can also have advantages for [sic] able bodied visitors... (Young and Urquhart 1996, p.1). Rationale: Sometimes when using a direct quote from the author it is better to give some relevant parts only, rather than the whole text. The layout is similar to quoting in full but the … indicates that you have missed out the irrelevant parts. Square brackets [ ] indicate where you have added your own words to the quotation in order to make the sentence readable or more understandable since the truncation of the quote may make the context harder to follow. The use of [sic] is used to indicate that the word, or phrase that follows is questionable. The intention of the author is to indicate to the reader that the quotation is being quoted as it was printed in the text being referred to, but the author of the main text realises that there is something wrong with that word, or phrase. This may be because it is spelt incorrectly, or that it is no longer deemed acceptable. In the example given “able bodied” is no longer the correct way to describe non-disabled people. The author of the example wishes to draw to the attention of the reader that whilst they would not have used these words the citation does use them. Uncertainty of author There are times when the identity of the author is unknown due to it not being stated in the source reference material. Example of where there is uncertainty of the author: As was pointed out the importance of proper referencing, cannot be understated, “to state someone else’s idea or words without referring to them is intellectual theft.” (Anon 2003). Rationale: Use Anon to link the reference to the quotation or idea referred to in the main text where you are uncertain of a person’s name. In the reference section at the end of your work (see section 3) put Anon where the authors surname and initials would usually be.#p#分页标题#e#
Paraphrasing is where you put the author’s text, or idea, into your own words. Example of paraphrasing: If the UK construction industry is fragmented as Harvey and Ashworth (1993) suggest, then the potential value of experience within the industry is enormous. Rationale: Rather than provide a direct quotation from Harvey and Ashworth the author has chosen to simply acknowledge that the words/idea are not solely the author’s but are influenced by the specific writings of others who are then referenced. Note that because Harvey and Ashworth are part of the sentence, then only the date is given in brackets. If the author’s name does not form part of the sentence, then both the author’s name and the date are put in brackets. Referring to an author’s work without any quotation, or paraphrasing Example of referring to an author’s work without any quotation, or paraphrasing: Yet, in my opinion, the experiences of one professional sector are not readily transferred to other professional sectors with the industry. The value of experience would appear to be underrated within the industry. The reasons for this are not clear but if we look outside the industry to the work of Boud and Walker (1990), we may find a reason for this. Rationale: Here the authors are referred to in the sentence, and the date of the work put in brackets. The idea of the other authors is not given either as a direct quotation, or as a paraphrase, instead the reader is left to find out, or already be familiar with, that idea. In this particular example the following paragraph goes on to explain the idea from Boud and Walker (1990) so the reference in this paragraph is introducing the reader to the work. It may be, however, that the reference is sufficient for the target audience to recognise the idea without any further paraphrasing of it. Referring to more than one item in the same year by the same author If you need to refer to an author in the main body and they have written several items in the same year, and you want to refer to them in your work, then you will need to use a convention to indicate which reference in the main body relates to which reference in the references section at the end of your work. This is usually done by adding a lower case letter after the year, such as Ormerod (2005a) at the first reference to a particular work and then when referring to a different work also by Ormerod in 2005 use Ormerod (2005b) etc.
Where there are three or less authors it is usual to refer to all the authors. For example, the illustration of Imrie and Hall given previously. Where there are more than three authors it is usual to give the name of the first author followed by the two words, et al, which mean “and others” in Latin. Example of referring to works of joint authors Newton et al. (2005) state their definition of inclusive design as being different from universal design, or design-for-all.#p#分页标题#e# Rationale: Rather than clutter the main body of the text with a long string of authors for one reference it is usual to abbreviate it to only one author. Note the punctuation when using et al. In the references section at the end of the work (see section 3) all the authors would be given against this reference. The use of et al is only a shorthand in the main text. It may be the case that the first author ,whose name you will use with et al in the main body of your text, has written other works in the same year, to which you also refer in the main body. If the first author has in the other instances written on their own, or with three or two other authors this does not present a problem, since you can use et al on the multiple authors reference and then put the single author (or two or three authors names) on the other references. If, however, the first author has written in the same year with multiple other authors (requiring the use of et al) and a variety of items to which you need to refer then you will need to use a convention to indicate which reference in the main body relates to which reference in the references section at the end of your work. This is usually done by adding a lower case letter after the year, such as Newton et al (2005a) at the first reference to a particular work and then when referring to a different work also by Newton and others published in 2005 use Newton (2005b) for the second work, etc. Referencing other sources in the main text Example of referencing Acts of Parliament: The issue of reasonableness is a crucial element in UK disability legislation (Disability Discrimination Act 1995). Example of referencing British Standards publications: Codes of practice on accessibility in the built environment have become more comprehensive in the range of issues covered (BS8300:2001).
The work of Anthony Caro crosses the boundaries for sculpture to architecture and back with installations that can be walked through as if they were doorways (Millbank Steps, 2005). Example of an artwork illustrated in another document: The work of Anthony Caro demonstrate that sculptures can cross the boundary into architecture (Babylon 1997-2001). Rationale: Note that there are two possible situations for wanting to reference an artwork or illustration. The first is where the reference is to the artwork where it is exhibited, i.e. in a museum, art gallery, etc. The second is where it is illustrated in another document, such as a book. Any images, diagrams or figures given in your work, that are sourced from others, should be referenced correctly in order to acknowledge the original creators. Example of referencing a television programme: The following concept of trust, mirrors that uncovered in the investigations by the BBC (Panorama 2003). Referencing electronic sources There is currently limited guidance on referencing electronic sources of information and this can be frustrating since many sources are now obtained electronically. Common electronic sources are web sites in the entirety; individual pages from a web site; electronic journal articles and downloadable documents; discussion lists; chat rooms; personal e-mail.#p#分页标题#e# In order to enable a reader of your document to source the references that you make to electronic material you need to consider what would be useful in order to search for that material, and to identify if it is the same as that which you used. In the main text of your document you need to refer to the electronic material in a way that corresponds to that in the references section, see section 3. This should be by the author, or corporate author, if stated, and should not be the web address (URL). The author should be followed by a year based on preferably a date given when the electronic material was created, but if this is not known then the year that you accessed it electronically (the year cited). If there is more than one reference drawn from the same author and year then the convention of using “a”, “b” etc. should be used after the year. Example of referencing a web site: The concept of Lifetime Homes is based on 16 standards (Habinteg 2005a). Example of referencing a page on a web site: “Window cill heights of no more than 750mm and windows that are easy to operate” is guidance 15 of the Lifetime Homes Standard (Habinteg 2005b). Example of referencing an electronic article and a downloadable document: The National Observatory on Inclusive Design in Portugal is an example of the initiatives being taken across Europe (Moreira da Silva 2004). A useful one page checklist on Lifetime Homes is available electronically (Habinteg 2005c). Example of referencing an electronic discussion list posting: The issue of two-way communication is regarded as important in fire refuge areas (West 2005). Example of referencing an e-mail: Inclusive design, universal design and design-for-all are differing terms that are used interchangeably but are in fact different by definition (Newton 2005). Rationale In the main text the reference to an electronic source is no different to that of other sources of information. Avoid putting the web address (URL) as the author. These details should be kept to be included in the references section at the end. 3. Creating a Reference Section at the end of your work In addition to citing in the main text, a Reference Section is created at the end of an author’s work. This enables the reader to easily locate and follow up a reference given in the main text. The rule of thumb is to provide that information that the reader would need to use in order to search for that text themselves. Therefore locating a book from a library requires knowledge of the author, the year, the title and publisher’s details. If it is a journal article then as well as author and title of the article the journal title, page numbers, series and volume will be useful. Setting out the references in the Reference Section uses certain conventions, which assists the reader to know the details of the various texts used in the study and these are given in this section.#p#分页标题#e# The Reference Section at the end of a work differs from a bibliography: • A bibliography contains, alphabetically, all those texts which the author considers influenced him/her in the work produced; many of these may not be referred to at all in the main text. • The Reference Section contains only those texts that have been cited in the main text. Some authors whose work has identical lists for References Section and Bibliography choose to combine them to save repetition. In larger academic works such as dissertations and theses it is usual to expect there to be two separate sections. In the Reference Section, the authors are listed alphabetically (A to Z) from the first word of each item. The layouts of various entries, from a selection of different source types, are now set out. Note, in each, the order, punctuation and use of italics. The layout is very important, but can vary depending on the requirements of those requesting the written work. These are our suggested layouts based on published sources (see section 4), but you should check with those to whom you are submitting your work as to their view on layout. Referencing a book Example of a book with a single author: Carr-Saunders, A.M., 1928. The Professions. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Rationale: For a book with a single author, you put the following in the order given: 1. Surname of the author is always first. This may require a decision on where in the alphabetic listing it appears if the name has multiple elements to it, such as Fernando Moreira da Silva or Pauline von Bonsdorff. The ISBN/ISSN numbers are not usually given.#p#分页标题#e#
Barrett, P., and Stanley, C., 1999. Better Construction Briefing. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd. Rationale: Use the same approach as for singled author of a book, except list all authors, in the order given on the title page, and for the last author use “and” to indicate it that the next name is the last in the list. So four authors would appear as Newton, R.N., Ormerod, M.G., Garaj, V., and Lewis, A. Example of corporate authors: The Disability Rights Commission, 2002. Legislative Review: First review of the Disability Discrimination Act 1995. London: The Disability Rights Commission. Rationale: This is the same layout as in individual authors, with the name of the corporate authors given instead of the names of individual authors. Generally if a name appears as a group of initials, the full form may be added in square brackets, unless the body is usually identified by the initials only. Remember that whilst you may be familiar with the acronym used your readers may not and will benefit from what the initials mean, unless or course they have no meaning! Example of an edited book (where a collection of authors have contributed to the book): Cooper, G., ed., 1975. Theories of Group Processes. London: John Wiley. Rationale: This is similar to the layout for an individual author, instead of the names of all the authors contained in the book, the name of the editor (or editors) is given, and then ed. is put. (ed. or eds. are recognised as the acceptable abbreviations for editor/s). Example of an referencing an author who has written a chapter in an edited book: Lunt, N., and Thornton, P., 1997. Researching Disability Employment Policies. In: Barnes, C., and Mercer, C., eds. Doing Disability Research. Leeds: The Disability Press, pp. 108-122. Rationale: In this example “Lunt and Thornton (1997)” will have been cited in the main text, but because Lunt and Thornton only wrote a chapter in a book the reader needs more information if they are to be successful in locating a copy. Whilst similar principles to those for multiple authors apply the title of the book in which the chapter is located is given in and it is this that is in italics, not the title of the chapter which Lunt and Thornton wrote. The logic for this is that if someone wanted to read the chapter they would order the book title (and not the chapter title) from a library. The page numbers are also given to speed up the locating process for the reader. Note that the use of “pp” as an abbreviation for “page numbers” or “p” for “page number” is optional and can be omitted with just the numerals provided. Referencing a report or thesis Example of a published report or thesis: Latham, M., 1994. Constructing the Team. London: HMSO. Example of an unpublished report or thesis: #p#分页标题#e# Bonham, L.A., 1987. Theoretical and Practical Differences and Similarities among Selected Cognitive and Learning Styles of Adults: An Analysis of Literature. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, USA: University of Georgia. Rationale: Referencing a journal or newspaper article Different journals, magazines and newspapers provide different information, and you need to ensure that your reference fits into the basic principles of the examples given. The procedure of using et al, described previously, if there are more than three authors also applies to these documents and is especially likely for journal articles. Example of a journal article: Boud, D., and Walker, D., 1990. Making the Most of Experience. Studies in Continuing Education,12(2), pp 61-80. Rationale: The following layout applies: It is important to note that it is not the title of the article that is written in italics, but the title of the journal or magazine from which the article came. Example of a newspaper article: Dyckhoff, T., 2005. In keeping? It’s an insult. The Times T2 supplement. 22nd Feb, p16. Rationale: Again similar principles apply except rather than volume and issue numbers the newspapers edition date is given. Months are usually abbreviated, e.g. Jan for January. Referencing a conference paper Example of referencing an individual paper within published conference proceedings Newton, R.A., 1993. Reflecting research practice - from concrete experience to abstract conceptualisation in Miller, N., and Jones, D., eds, Research : Reflecting Practice. Papers from the 23rd SCUTREA Conference, Manchester, UK. July, pp 65-68. Rationale: Note here that the author of the paper is the first part of the reference and the layout is similar to that where an author has written a chapter in an edited book. Additional information is given about the conference by including the place the conference was held and the date. The place of publication and publisher will depend on how the proceedings of the conference were produced by the conference organisers. Often the organisers will produce their own volume containing the papers as a set of proceedings, in which case the place of publication is not given, as in the example used. Some conferences are published by book publishers and in this case their details should be given before the page numbers.#p#分页标题#e# Referencing Statutes and Codes of Practice Example of referencing Acts of Parliament: Disability Discrimination Act 1995. London: HMSO. Example of referencing British Standard publications: BS 8300:2001. Design of buildings and their approaches to meet the needs of disabled people. London: British Standards Institution. Referencing an illustration There are two situations for referencing an artwork or illustration. The first is where the artwork is exhibited at a location. The second is where an artwork is illustrated in another document. Example of artwork exhibited at a location: Millbank Steps, 2005. Caro exhibition, London: Tate Britain Example of an artwork illustrated in another document: Babylon 1997-2001 in Moorhouse, P., ed., 2005. Anthony Caro. London: Tate Publishing, pp110-111 Referencing a video or television/radio programme Often these are collaborative works without the authors/originators being identified so should be cited first by title. Where there is a dominant originator then they may be identified along with their role, such as director. Other information to be included in the reference are where it was shown and when. Example of referencing a television programme: Panorama, 2003. Promises, Promises. TV, BBC1. 16th Feb. Referencing electronic sources The referencing of electronic sources is subject to varied interpretation but the rule of thumb guidance is to provide as much information as possible that will allow the reader opportunity to search for the source themselves. The transitory nature of electronic sources can frustrate a reader trying to locate your sources of information so it is useful to also provide a date that you accessed the source (known as the citation date). Example of referencing a web site: Habinteg Housing Association, 2005a. Lifetime Homes. [Web site] http://www.lifetimehomes.org.uk [cited 27 February 2005]. Rationale: The following layout applies: Example of referencing a web page: Habinteg Housing Association, 2005b. Lifetime homes standards 15 window specifications. [Web page] http://www.lifetimehomes.org.uk/16points_front.php?menu1=15&action=get&Submit=Go [cited 28 英国Eassy Referencing格式February 2005]. Rationale: As for an entire web site except that the title of the particular page is used and web page with its address is given. Example of referencing an electronic article: Moreira da Silva, F., 2004. The National Observatory on Inclusive Design in Portugal, in the Proceedings of Designing for the 21st Century III. Rio de Janeiro: Adaptive Environments. [CD ROM and web page] http://www.designfor21st.org/proceedings/proceedings/project_moreira_da_silva.html [cited 28 February 2005].#p#分页标题#e# Rationale: The following layout applies: Example of a downloadable document: Habinteg Housing Association, 2005c. Lifetime Homes Standards CHECKLIST. London: Habinteg Housing Association. [PDF download] http://www.lifetimehomes.org.uk/library/checklist.pdf [cited 28 February 2005]. Rationale: The following layout applies: Example of referencing an electronic discussion list posting: West, V., 2005. Fire refuge communication options. In Accessibuilt list [online]. JISCMAIL. [Internet] http://www.jiscmail.ac.uk [requires subscription]. 5 January. Rationale: 1. Author of posting, Example of referencing an e-mail: Newton, R.A., 2005. Definitions of inclusive design, universal design and design-for-all. Recipient Ormerod, M., [unpublished e-mail] 19 January. Rationale: 1. Author of e-mail, 4. Sources used for this Guide British Standard Institution, 1989. BS 1629:1989. Recommendations for references to published materials. London: HMSO.
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