亚齐灾后重建的经验教训

亚齐灾后重建的经验教训
Lessons Learned from Aceh Post-disaster Recovery

通过单独的政府机构协调

协调被广泛认定为灾后重建的实质性问题。印尼政府的反应即在亚齐的创建。BRR的建立即为一个单一的政府机构负责监督复兴计划的实现，提供了必要的协调机制大量的人道主义机构,抵达受灾地区。作为中央政府的一个扩展和一个单独的政府机构,即可以立即提供必要的权威非政府捐助者和政府实施机构开始他们的计划,并帮助他们优先考虑他们的程序,以确保有效的复苏计划和测序有有限的重复和没有,尽可能出现一个缺口。

BRR的经验在协调很多国际援助提供者,涌向亚齐支持救灾和重建工作提供了一个模式,可能影响联合国组织的救灾。现在已经开发了一个集群的系统组织援助机构和其他非政府组织的救灾工作(da Silva, 2009).

短期和长期的重建

面临的困境之一机构工作，在一场灾难之后如何结合行动旨在克服迫在眉睫的问题(如缺乏住所)用行动支持长期发展规划目标(如提供足够的住房在适当的位置)。最近的一份报告在亚齐的经验教训(da Silva,2009)报告说,从英国慈善资金帮助建造了一些14000新房,但这些之后必须改造,甚至推倒重建。房屋的设计的关键因素(和学校和其他建筑)在亚齐省是一个地区的地震危险性高。而慈善机构和其他非政府组织往往在灾后救援的前沿,在当地条件他们需要寻求专家建议。

通过单独的政府机构协调——Coordinating through a Single-government Agency

Coordination is widely identified as a substantial problem with post-disaster reconstruction. The Indonesian government's response in Aceh was the creation of BRR. The establishment of BRR as a single government agency responsible for overseeing the implementation of the recovery program provided the necessary mechanisms for coordinating the large number of humanitarian agencies that arrived in the affected regions. As an extension of the central government and a single-government agency, BRR could immediately provide the necessary authority for non-government donors and government implementing agencies to commence their programs, and to assist them prioritizing their programs to ensure effective recovery planning and sequencing with limited duplication and without, as far as possible, any gaps emerging.

BRR's experience in coordinating the many international aid providers that flocked to Aceh to support the relief and reconstruction effort provided a pattern that may have influenced the United Nations in its organization of disaster relief. It has now developed a 'cluster' system to organize aid agencies' and other NGOs' relief efforts (da Silva, 2009).

短期和长期的重建——Short-term and Long-term Reconstruction

One of the dilemmas that faces agencies working in the aftermath of a disaster is how to combine actions aimed at overcoming immediate problems (such as lack of shelter) with actions that support longer-term development planning goals (such as providing adequate housing in appropriate locations). A recent report on lessons learned from Aceh (da Silva, 2009) reports that charity funding from Britain helped build some 14,000 new homes but that many of these later had to be retrofitted or even knocked down and rebuilt. A key factor in the design of houses (and school and other buildings) in Aceh is that it is an area of high seismic risk. Whilst charities and other non-government organizations are often at the forefront of post-disaster relief, they need to seek expert advice on local conditions. Similarly, government reconstruction efforts should marry short-term relief with appropriate long-term planning goals, for example through the construction and location of housing.

Developing action plans for long term recovery is needed for the Aceh government. This means that there should be developed a recovery and rehabilitation policy for local government, including expertise requirements for large scale construction and realistic timeframes. Action plans can be used as the basis for deciding on resource coordination responsibilities in the crisis, including data capture and analysis, Global Information Systems and other informational management technologies. Local government also needs to conduct a review of all tsunami evaluations and lessons learned and synthesis key elements from all stakeholders. Evaluations need to be followed-up by action plans and then ensure that follow up action plans are implemented so that short-term and long-term are considered together.

权力分散——Decentralized Authority

The literature on post-disaster reconstruction emphasizes the importance of involvement of local communities in decision-making and by implication the decentralization of decision-making to local levels. BRR set the example as the first Central Government agency to be based outside Jakarta. This non-Jakarta-centric approach allowed the agency to better respond to changing needs. Further, as vast areas were affected by the tsunami, BRR Regional Offices were established to oversee execution of projects right where they are being carried out. These regional offices ensured that projects followed the existing standards and regulations and involved community participation and the local government.

BRR has encouraged its implementing partners to similarly transfer decision making in project planning and execution to its team in the field. For instance, the decision of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) to shift its command post from Manila to the earthquake and Tsunami emergency Program in Aceh resulted in less bottlenecks and a significant improvement in the implementation process (Subekti, 2008).

However, there were some situations where the wider issues of public administration (or governance) overlap with the issues that arise from decentralization. In Banda Aceh, because of confusion and lack of transparency over key policy issues, such as the location and status of the coastal buffer zone, there was some debilitation of both the relief and recovery phases. This is a clear case of need for government to have clear mechanisms which resonate with the principles of good governance.

监管改革——Regulatory Reform

Within a setting where government reform remains a work-in-progress and the nation is struck by a series of unprecedented natural disasters, it is inevitable that certain rules and regulations will need to be modified. The government was aware of this and, by establishing BRR, it minimized the potential disunity associated with side-stepping business-as-usual. Having the need, the mandate and the necessary political will, BRR institutionalized a number of regulatory reforms - reforms which not only expedited the recovery program, but also contributed to the national government's on-going reform program, especially with respect to disaster management.

Such reform, while essential to the recovery program and welcomed by implementing partners, needs to be carefully conceived, broadly considered, and implemented within models of best practices. There is a greater risk implementing regulatory reform within a post-disaster situation because of the way that short-term and long-term needs can become entangled (Subekti, 2008). Clearly the need to keep long-term impacts in mind when undertaking short-term actions in a recovery or reconstruction program applies to a number of government and non-government agencies and to many fields of endeavour. The impact on physical outputs such as housing has already been identified but it can be seen to apply equally to public policy actions, such as regulatory reform.

未来减少灾害风险应该重建过程的一部分—— Future Disaster Risk Reduction should be Integral to the Reconstruction Process

There are two aspects to this, both of which became apparent in Banda Aceh. The first is that reconstruction should be seen as only one stage of the disaster management cycle, and that there are stages that should be completed before any disaster occurs. In the case of Banda Aceh there had been no pre-disaster planning. This reduced the effectiveness of post-disaster reconstruction efforts. Given that Banda Aceh is in a seismically active area and is subject to other natural hazards, such as flooding and storm damage, then local and national governments should be developing plans to reduce the impact of future disasters. The second aspect is that planning for future disaster risk reduction should be an integral component of the actual reconstruction process, at least partially because the impact of a disaster provides a window of opportunity when communities, governments and non-government organizations are acutely conscious of what the damage a disaster can entail. This requires a strategy which capitalizes on the availability of funds and political will, and includes social and financial measures relating to awareness raising and preparedness. The opportunity to rationalize urban plans to include evacuation routes and strategically address services provision and the location of critical infrastructure should be considered rather than rebuilding urban communities by repeating the pattern of organic growth and siting public buildings as before (da Silva, 2009).

A sometimes neglected aspect of future disaster planning is maintaining community disaster awareness. Simeulu Island, in Aceh province, is a good example of the way that local knowledge and community awareness can help mitigate the impact of disasters. When the tsunami was coming people moved very quickly to higher ground. Very few people were killed by the tsunami on Simeulu Island. This was because knowledge and experience of past tsunamis had been passed from generation to generation.#p#分页标题#e#

亚齐省灾后的和平——Post-disaster Peace in Aceh

The devastation wrought by a natural disaster such as the 2004 tsunami, whilst painful and debilitating, can have unexpected positive benefits. In Aceh the tsunami helped trigger peace negotiations between the Government of Indonesia and the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) which led to a memorandum of understanding on August 15 2005. Every effort must be made to retain this positive outcome. Both the Government of Indonesia and the Free Aceh Movement need to continue to work actively to ensure the understanding remains. The lesson that can be derived from this event is that whilst natural disasters have serious and damaging impacts they can also be used as a catalyst for helping to address other possibly longer-running problems. Disasters can have the effect of bringing people with opposing views together in an effort to jointly address the overwhelming difficulties faced by impacted communities.

提供厕所和水是任何房地产项目的重要组成部分——Provision of Toilets and Access to Water is an Essential Part of any Housing Program

Whilst the focus on disaster rescue operations is often on the provision of shelter and housing, the lesson to be learned from Aceh's experience is that housing and infrastructure need to be considered together. At its most basic this implies considering housing together with the provision of potable water and human waste disposal facilities; but in the longer term the provision of other forms of physical and social infrastructure need to be considered to support the provision of housing. In Aceh, mostly, agencies provided toilets and wells themselves as part of an integrated shelter, water and sanitation program, with the option to connect to piped water supplies where this was available. Where this was outside their area of expertise, they formed partnerships with other NGOs who committed to constructing toilets and providing water. However, this was often problematic. Partner agencies had other priorities, and were not always able to coordinate provision of facilities and services with completion of the houses (Silva, 2009).

当地的社区、志愿者和媒体的角色—— The Role of Local Communities, Volunteers, and the Media

The experience of Banda Aceh reinforces the importance of local communities and volunteers, particularly in disaster rescue situations. Volunteers were really helpful and useful, especially in the fields of medical assistance, architecture, welfare support, and logistics specialists. There were thousands of volunteers who rushed to the damaged area to support victims. Such support needs to be tempered by the need to organize and direct the efforts of volunteers so that priorities are kept and there is not unnecessary duplication. The role of media to give information as soon as possible after the disaster was also very important in Banda Aceh in order to help the affected people. The various interviews undertaken for this research confirmed this, but they also indicated that some forms of media were more effective than others. For example, radios provided necessary contact between Aceh and the outside world after the disaster. Villagers also identified the use of the internet as important, in providing information to the rest of the world and so maintaining international support. Given the importance of both these forms of media there is a case to be made for the early restoration of electricity supplies, not just to provide lighting and cooking and related services but also to maintain such media connections.

In addition, radio was used quite successfully in Aceh to update affected communities on the recovery progress and to enable community members to ask questions. A variety of call-in programs focused on both reconstruction assistance and psycho-social support. A key lesson here is the value of using familiar and established media outlets (CCP-I, 2009).

推荐——Recommendations

Based on these findings the study makes some recommendations for all the major stakeholders in Aceh's and other post-disaster recovery. The study also provides some lessons for other countries affected by tsunamis (or similar natural disasters) and facing the problems of post-disaster reconstruction.

协调——Coordination

Coordination should be resourced as a specific function with a dedicated budget. In contexts in which the United Nations is required to play a major coordinating role, budgets should be established for specialist coordinators matched to associated competencies such as leadership, facilitation and coordination skills.

Strengthen skills in sector based coordination, particularly when a number of humanitarian actors is involved, and look towards international agencies for coherence and cohesion.

Governments need to develop a specific coordination strategy with an associated resource plan for emergency response situations.

NGOs and other donors should make a special effort to coordinate with local governments. NGOs and other donor providers are one of the keys to success in implementing a recovery program.

Donors and NGOs need to work with the central and local governments in rationalizing the donor coordination function through one office. Central Government should formulate the framework of coordination among recovery stakeholders. Coordination between and within ministries, between levels of government, and other recovery stakeholders is vital. Effective coordination to ensure consistency and effectiveness among sectoral and regional programs at national and regional levels is critical, given that aspects of reconstruction, such as housing, education, employment and infrastructure, touch on many sector responsibilities and ministerial and government interests.

Central government should be allocated the adequate resources to support mechanism of coordination in the recovery and reconstruction phases.

Central government should link the tsunami warning system to other hazard warning systems and strengthen the warning systems as part of an integrated disaster risk reduction approach. National plans for warning systems should address the means to transmit warnings and should be included in disaster management, public awareness and community-based activities. Coordination and warning systems should be components a national disaster management plans.

There is need for capacity building to coordinate NGOs and donors and provide guidance for recovery processes. Local government should build the capacity of local communities and strengthen the coordination among the aid agencies of recovery efforts

有效的官僚主义——Effective Bureaucracy

National government should pay attention to strengthening sufficient national and local capacity to work together over multi international-agency responses. Personal commitment was shown by local officials but they were disempowered by the central level. Differences in resource allocation and policy implementation raised questions about government intentions, particularly in conflict-sensitive areas. Government commitment to the cessation of civil conflict needs to flow all the way through government policy making and implementation.

Major communication and information-sharing problems occurred between government agencies and with the international community. There is a need to recognize these difficulties and to develop a system that would overcome them, so that there is clear direction for stakeholders in the recovery and reconstruction process.

District government needs more structural capacity-building support to absorb new personnel, fill positions and face new challenges from the central and provincial government. At national/provincial level, disparities between the training, positions and the like of national and local staff lead to resentment.

The central government should strengthen Aceh government staff capacity caused by the 30-year separatist conflict, empower the local authorities, and become more effectively engaged with local communities. This is a clear case where the opportunities made available through the unfortunate impact of the disaster need to be seized at a number of different levels. The commitment to peace, triggered to some extent by the tsunami disaster, needs to flow through to the community in a number of different ways.

The key element for reducing corruption in post-disaster situations for a long term process is good governance. The government needs to undertake the planning for allocation of funds for recovery and it should be approved by the legislature. The community should be informed the flow of aid and other funds until the services/goods are delivered. This incorporates aspects of good governance identified by major international organizations such as the UNDP.

One mechanism for supporting greater coordination would be to develop relevant shared databases. The assessments of recovery should be conducted by multi-agency teams to the extent practicable. The assessments should be periodically updated. Common databases within existing government structures can greatly facilitate coherence.

社区参与—— Community Involvement

Central and local government, aid agencies and other actors in the recovery process should be aware that there may be poor levels of community capacity in the reconstruction and rehabilitation processes. For example, well-funded international agencies often extract human resources from local institutions just when they are most needed. Consideration should be given to a strong program of community participation and local capacity development in ways that will allow them to retain their autonomy.#p#分页标题#e#

Aid agencies and the government of Indonesia should develop methodologies to increase affected communities' involvement in setting priorities, design of programs and monitoring of implementation. International action in Banda Aceh was most effective when enabling, facilitating and supporting local actors. International agencies often brushed local capacities aside, even though they subscribe to norms and standards that call for engagement with and accountability to local actors such as governments, communities and local NGOs. International agencies often ignored local structures and did not communicate well with local communities nor hold themselves accountable to them. This drive towards greater involvement of local communities should also include the development of local community and local government capacities.

The importance of the local population being able to participate in the provision of facilities was reinforced in Banda Aceh. The Acehnese needed to be contributors to rather than having to wait for the recovery of their houses and settlements. A people-centred and participative rehabilitation and reconstruction process is important. Participation in planning, construction, and monitoring is important in the recovery process.

There is, however, a clear need to establish a community-based approach that provides outreach to all of the Aceh community to be involved in the recovery by identifying gaps in village reconstruction and matching these to projects and funds. The approach should not rely just on participation by community representatives or elites.

There is also a need to increase community knowledge about natural hazards that may affect them. In the case of Banda Aceh this includes earthquakes, tsunamis, storms and flooding. For example, in relation to earthquakes, there should be increased science-based earthquake education. Extending formal and informal hazard education initiatives to women is imperative. A staring point should be promoting literacy, developing appropriate curriculum materials, and training teachers and women leaders. Training should address life-saving hazard drills, basic hazard science, risk awareness, and information about building appropriate dwellings. Women should be respected as able community defenders and disaster management professionals.

能力建设——Capacity Building

Local government should be the focus of longer term capacity strengthening. The capacity of Aceh's local government was identified as an important issue in disaster reconstruction. The numerous employees who worked for BRR and the various NGOs came mainly from outside of Aceh. The use of external employees was necessary because the required workers and expertise were not available in Aceh. In general, immediate efficiency and delivery were prioritized over sustainability and longer term capacity strengthening.

Similar staffing capacity problems were faced by aid agencies. The international agencies were faced with problems including high staff turnover, inappropriate job profiling, loss of institutional memory, and marked disparities in remuneration. To address these issues needs long term plans to provide incentives to trained and capable staff and to include succession planning within the organizations.

Central government should involve the local government apparatus in every activity of recovery in their villages or sub-districts. This may involve the payment of special allowances or honoraria for specific activities.

As noted elsewhere special consideration needs to be given to maintaining the peace accord involving the Free Aceh Movement (GAM). The central government together with aid agencies and local government should give priority to including ex-members of GAM. The limitation of educational levels of GAM ex-members for the time being must be put aside in order to help increase social harmony. Peace is important in achieving reconstruction in Aceh. The lesson learned from Aceh is that whilst a disaster can help bring together parties who are in violent disagreement agreements forged in the light of disaster conditions need to be nurtured throughout the recovery and reconstruction phases and beyond.

复苏计划——Recovery Planning

Aceh provides a lesson on the potential impact of lack of pre-disaster planning. The processes of rescue and reconstruction also drew attention to the need to marry short-term actions with longer-term development planning. Thus, the Aceh government needs to put in place a long term recovery plan that includes a substantial role for local government and the development of local government capacity; but equally it needs to develop specific disaster management plans aimed at preventing disasters where possible and mitigating their impacts otherwise. Clearly such plans need to extend beyond the 2009 mandate of BRR. Such plans should include mechanisms for educating and raising the awareness of both affected communities and decision-makers alike of the intrinsic cyclical linkages between environmental management and disaster management. In such disaster management plans there should be mechanisms to ensure that aid agencies are aware that disaster risk reduction must be incorporated into relief and post-disaster reconstruction planning. Disaster management plans should also consider how they might reinforce wider governance issues, such as human rights protection.

Long-term development plans and disaster management plans should include mechanisms that ensure that government and aid agencies are involved in evaluations of action plans and can ensure that follow up action plans are implemented.

The Aceh government should maintain investment in preparedness programs to help make the society more resilient. As has already been noted, the best policy for effective post-disaster recovery is to prepare for the event before disaster strikes. This can be achieved by strengthening the system of disaster management and preparedness within government and community at all levels. In addition disaster recovery planning needs to feature in higher education to prepare key professions for the challenge of recovery planning and management. Public education should be designed to enhance disaster resilience and strengthen the capacity and capability of individuals, families, schools and the communities, which are always the most vulnerable to disasters, but are also effective channels for achieving sustainability and prosperity.

One way of achieving this preparedness would be to develop a Disaster Management Bill that aimed to strengthen the capacities for disaster management, preparedness and response of relevant government agencies.

Disaster and recovery planning could be aided by better information on natural hazards. Both the Indonesian and the Aceh government should pursue a coordinated, interdisciplinary effort to further the understanding of earthquake prediction and of earthquake impacts, for example. An important element of disaster management planning would be for the Aceh government to form a new recovery task-force or commission drawn from existing governmental agencies to manage the recovery and reconstruction processes. This new organization could handle the recovery management with a special task force for long term outcomes. Such an agency is needed to cope with the unprecedented demands that may cross all sectors when the next natural disaster strikes Aceh. It should operate in close coordination with the existing system government and be run by existing officials, from within existing line ministries.

沟通——Communication

One strongly identified issue from the focus group discussion and interviews was the lack of communication among stakeholders. This problem can be illustrated by the researcher's own experience. The focus group discussion confirmed this problem and most respondents argued that there was a lack of effective communication among stakeholders.

There is a need to develop an information network to reach "people in tents and shelters" that monitors progress of the reconstruction process and handles complaints, brings up controversial issues and ideas for improvement.

Local government should ensure that its public communications such as telephone, internet and access to mass-media work and its various programs are aligned when they are implemented.

未来的研究——Future Research

Given the fact that the Tsunami simultaneously impacted on several countries with differing arrangements for decentralization, it provides an opening for comparative research. Thus it would be merited to undertake additional in-depth case studies in the five countries affected by the Tsunami on 26 December 2004, i.e. Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Maldives, India, and Thailand.

Other areas of potential future research - relating to problems that were identified in the research but for which there were not the time or resources to follow up in more depth include:

Ways of better integrating short-term recovery actions with long term development;

Assessing the importance of cultural and belief issues and their impacts in disaster recovery;

Whilst BRR was a centralized organization which coordinated actions, are there other structures or institutions for of improving coordination in post-disaster crises; and

The role of the media in recovery and reconstruction - and which forms of media are the most effective for which kinds of actions.