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指导美国民主制度作业Discuss the separation of powers in USA
“Separation of powers” is the theory of checks and balances and some western developed capitalist countries of the Constitution and the principle of constitutional theory, they called it the best form of state power. the so-called “separation of powers” refers to the legislative, executive and judicial powers by the authorities in different countries to master, and the exercise of an independent system. The theory of checks and balances refers to the exercise of legislative power in Parliament, the President in the exercise of executive power, the court in the exercise of jurisdiction, mutual supervision and mutual restraint in order to achieve the “three” countries in the form of government in balance. If the United States now is to implement the checks and balances: the President of both houses of Congress have a right of veto the bill, but the legislature for reconsideration, two-thirds majority to become law; the president to appoint an executive branch official, the conclusion of the treaty to the Senate for seeking the views of And agreed to; for Congress to have the President of the US-led administration officials question the power of impeachment; government officials on the Judiciary, which has jurisdiction as well, as well as laws enacted by Congress is a violation of the constitutional right to review; the President and Congress combined with exercise The right to the appointment of judges; Congress to participate in part of the judicial power, judicial declaration of treason and the president of the jurisdiction as well.
“separation of powers” and the theory of checks and balances as a Western capitalist countries of the Constitution and the principle of constitutional theory, not in the bourgeois revolution created, and certainly not in today’s developed capitalist countries first. It has a certain history, and in different historical periods have different characteristics and expressions.
一： “separation of powers” and the theory of checks and balances should be the first slave society in the West dates back to ancient Rome, the National Republican era, to explore the principles and theories of Rome is the first legal thinker Polybius (BC 204 years - 122 BC). At the time of the Roman Empire to take the form of government in the form of a mixed system of government of the country’s political system in such a mixed system of government, the Roman Empire, there are three kinds of internal forces: Captains Regent (or administrator) forces on behalf of the monarch; Senate on behalf of the Group of aristocratic forces ; Civilian representatives of the democratic forces in parliament. Romewho spent half a century, the expansion of territory conquered many countries, to become an inter-continental Europe and the Mediterranean coast of the powerful empire, why not? Polybius, it is a secret: the three forces are constrained, so we can prevent the inevitable decline and degradation. This is the first Western “separation of powers” and the theory of checks and balances. This period is characterized by the Roman ruling class is in no sense, the subconsciously to apply the principles and theories, it has not really risen to a high degree of political theory, it is only a variety of forces for the outcome of political power . But it was later to become bourgeois “separation of powers,” a representative theory of Montesquieu and the United States to invoke the constitution in accordance with the law.
二：Western Europe, the Middle Ages (feudal society) is the period from the Western Roman Empire in AD 476 by the year of extinction by the middle of the 17th century, the continuation of a total of 1,200 years. During this period, as a result of the ruling class’s world view is essentially a theological world view, the country’s political system is a monarchy, the monarch as God in the world on behalf of a theology put on the cloak of human domination, “monarchical divine,” God Only the delegation of power by a monarch who should not have what other people have state power, the monarch set the legislative, executive and judicial powers in one, this is the Middle Ages, the Western legal system, the country’s political character. Due to the above-mentioned characteristics of the Middle Ages, “separation of powers” with the theory of checks and balances has not been applied in Western countries, let alone within the ruling class in an in-depth study of the theory.
三： Western European bourgeois revolution in the 17th and 18th centuries produced the first to the Netherlands as the leading bourgeois revolution, Britain, France, Germany, the United States and Western Europe, the major powers have been carried out against the feudal despotism of the struggle of the bourgeoisie to natural Law said that as the guide of “natural rights” and “Freedom” and a series of theories. “Separation of powers” and the theory of checks and balances such as the specific content of the theory in this period has become a constitutional principle of the bourgeoisie and the feudal nobility of the struggle against one of the ideological weapon. However, due to forces of the bourgeoisie in all countries there are some differences, the “separation of powers” with the theory of checks and balances in all countries are showing a different form and content.
1,17 mid-century outbreak of the British bourgeois revolution, the history of mankind is a major revolution, which marked the beginning of the modern history of the world. “Separation of powers” and the theory of checks and balances in this period was the initial application and development, but because of the bourgeois revolution in Britain with a compromise and not thorough, they raised the “separation of powers” and the theory of checks and balances is a bourgeois And the feudal aristocracy between the product of a compromise. in Britain, at the time when the bourgeois revolution, and its strength is weak, the feudal forces are still strong, from the feudal landlord class in the evolution of the new feudal aristocracy, on the one hand, they advocate the reform of the old feudal legal system and the other They feared that the negative aspects of the bourgeoisie and the overthrow of the existing system, so the new feudal aristocracy to become an obstacle to the bourgeois revolution and the main target. In the bourgeoisie and the nobility of the struggle between the British bourgeoisie to show weak side, they can not complete the bourgeois revolution and thorough way. It was against this historical background, the United Kingdom bourgeois thinkers, the founder of liberalism John Locke put forward the “separation of powers”, namely the legislative, executive, external power by different national institutions to capture, in which Chief Right by the King (Sovereign) to exercise, but Assembly in accordance with the decision; elected by the legislative power of Parliament to exercise; by foreign sovereign right to exercise. Locke can see that the “separation of powers” is actually a “separation of power”, the monarch holds the more extensive and vital power, and Locke’s “separation of powers” is not the bourgeoisie of the internal division of power, but Two different classes of power-sharing. It was France and the United States by the bourgeoisie to implement the “separation of powers” in both form and content have significant differences.
2,18 century French bourgeois revolution is unusually far-reaching significance of the revolution, the revolution in France to intensify social contradictions among the increasingly the result of the guiding ideology of the revolution: the complete break barriers feudal despotism, declared the bourgeois world of law France to the world as a whole is achieved victory. In such a revolution in thinking under the guidance of the French bourgeoisie to the feudal autocratic regime have made unremitting struggle, the thoroughness and uncompromising nature of the bourgeoisie in the United Kingdom does not have. Bourgeois revolutionary movement in France, has also emerged a large number of Enlightenment thinkers and scholars, such as Montesquieu, Rousseau, send Encyclopedia, Mo Laili, Robespierre and Mably. They bourgeois legal theory to the development of a new stage.
France after the victory of the bourgeois revolution, he faced the task is how to consolidate the fruits of the victory of the revolution? How bourgeois relations of production for the establishment of political and legal system? Montesquieu in his constitutional theory, put forward the “separation of powers”, and further raised each other restrictions against abuse of power, in order to achieve political freedom of the theory of checks and balances. He advocated the “separation of powers” refers to the legislative, executive and judicial powers respectively independent from the legislature to exercise legislative power, the king to exercise executive power, the court official with the jury to exercise judicial power. Montesquieu’s “separation of powers” and the theory of checks and balances from the formal establishment of a modern and modern bourgeois “separation of powers” and the concept of checks and balances theory, but the contents remained in line with the modern United States and the modern capitalist countries, said The “separation of powers” and the theory of checks and balances is a certain difference. Third, it is still entitled to the right of the feudal aristocracy to retain part of the forces still in the feudal system to the national government to remain in the place. In comparison, only the power of the feudal aristocracy to the small, with Montesquieu advocated a constitutional monarchy form of government theory that there is a certain link.
3,18 Century 70 in the United States during the War of Independence (United States bourgeois revolution) and the 17th and 18th century English, French bourgeois revolution is not exactly the same, which is characterized by: first, the spearhead of the revolution and to the cutting edge is Against the British colonial rule and oppression against the peoples for national independence and liberation. Second, the revolution is the nature of the bourgeois democratic revolution, but its content is not a major anti-feudal, colonial North America because this is not the feudal stage of social development and direct embark on the path of capitalist development, although the European colonialists Bring some of the remnants of feudalism, but did not constitute a major social forces. These features are English, French bourgeois revolution does not have. #p#分页标题#e#
1776 years 7 4, North America, the 13 colonies adopted at the Jefferson drafted by the United States “Declaration of Independence,” and a declaration from the United Kingdom, the establishment of the Republic. It marked the bourgeois revolution in the United States has made complete victory, the United States to become independent of the bourgeoisie of the Federal Republic of the ruling class. In order to implement the bourgeois democracy and the realization of federal and state relations between the central government coordination to overcome the Democratic Republicans (now the Democratic Party, the predecessor) and Federalists (the predecessor of the now Republican) party of the dispute, the United States in the early founding of the politicians, the Constitution Hamilton scientists have made in the full sense of “separation of powers” and the theory of checks and balances. He advocated the “separation of powers” is still in accordance with Montesquieu’s three powers would be divided into legislative, executive and judicial powers, and by the Congress, the President of the Court were to exercise independence of the three powers. With Britain, France and the national bourgeoisie is different: three of the exercise of power does not exist in any of the forces of the feudal nobility, the three powers of the bourgeoisie is the only beneficiaries.
In order for the bourgeoisie within a reasonable exercise of the full “three powers” to the capitalist class in-house free and equal, Hamilton further stressed his theory of checks and balances, in his view, in order to prevent the infringement, we must balance the three The power sector so that each sector does not have absolute power over other advantages, so that each of the three branches of power, opposition forces formed the balance of power. Balance of the three departments of power is to weaken the power of Parliament to strengthen the executive and judicial powers, to strengthen the independence of the judiciary. Both houses of Parliament settings, the status of the Senate than the House of Representatives, the Senate should be eligible for more stringent restrictions to strengthen the Council’s internal self-restraint in order to weaken parliament. Hamiltonthe “separation of powers” and the theory of checks and balances, the United States at that time to become one of the fundamental principles of constitutional, but also for the United States was established in the form of government and development played a stabilizing role. The development of the modern American legal http://www.ukassignment.org/mgzydx/2012/0406/19399.html system, despite the realism of Law, a new analysis of natural law and the new Law and other legal thought, but the modern bourgeois put forward by the “separation of powers” and the theory of checks and balances are not there had been any wavering. over from the “separation of powers” theory of checks and balances and history can be seen, “separation of powers” and not a theory of checks and balances in the modern Western bourgeois revolution generated, it has the earlier history and theory based on But in the modern bourgeois revolution has been the constant development and improvement. The modern Western bourgeois revolution in terms of timing, content, social class or the principal contradiction, both China and the social status quo there is a fundamental difference. If the 19th century and early 20th century Chinese bourgeoisie to take on anti-imperialist, anti-feudal tasks of the bourgeois revolution to achieve victory, the Sun Yat-sen advocated by the “five rights of the Constitution” and “power division”, the West should be more than assets Class advocated by the “separation of powers” and the theory of checks and balances and better science.
译文：
“三权分立”和制衡理论是当今西方一些发达资本主义国家的宪法原则和制宪理论，他们称它是最理想的国家政权组织形式。
所谓“三权分立”是指立法权、行政权、司法权分别由不同国家机关掌握，并独立行使的一种制度。制衡理论则是指议会在行使立法权、总统在行使行政权、法院在行使审判权时，相互监督、互相制约，以达到“三权”在国家政体中的平衡。如现今美国所实行的制衡方式是：总统有对国会两院法案的否决权，但立法机关复议，三分之二多数通过即可成为法律；总统任命行政官员、缔结条约要争求参议院的意见和同意；国会有对以总统为首的行政官员的质询、弹劾的权力；司法部门有对政府官员审判的权力，以及对国会制定的法律进行是否违反宪法的审查权；总统和国会结合起来行使对法官的任命权；国会参与部分司法权，有司法性的宣告叛国罪和对总统审判的权力。
“三权分立”和制衡理论作为西方资本主义国家的宪法原则和制宪理论，不是在资产阶级革命时期创造出来的，更不是当今一些发达资本主义国家的首创。它有着一定的历史渊源，并且在不同的历史时期有着不同的表现形式和特点。
一、“三权分立”和制衡理论最早应追溯到西方奴隶社会古罗马国家的共和时代，探索这一原则和理论的乃是罗马第一个法律思想家波里比阿（公元前204年—公元前122年）。当时罗马帝国采取的政体形式是一种混和政体的国家政治制度，在这种混和政体中，罗马帝国内部存在着三种势力：执政官（或行政官）代表君主势力；元老院代表贵族集团势力；平民议会代表民主势力。
罗马人花了半个世纪的时间，扩大版图，征服了很多国家，成为地跨欧洲大陆和地中海沿岸的强大帝国，原因何在？波里比阿发现，它的秘密就在于：上述三种势力是相互制约的，所以就可以防止必然退化与衰败的趋势。这便是西方最早的“三权分立”和制衡理论。这一时期的特点是，罗马统治阶级是在毫无意识地、不自觉地加以应用这一原则和理论，没有将它真正上升到政治理论的高度，它只不过是各种势力争夺政治权力的结果。但它却成为后来资产阶级“三权分立”代表人物孟德斯鸠的理论和美国制定宪法者援用的法律根据。
二、西欧中世纪（封建社会）时期是从公元476年西罗马帝国灭亡到公元17世纪中叶，共延续了1200年之久。这一时期，由于统治阶级的世界观本质上是神学世界观，所以国家政治制度是一种君主制度，君主作为上帝在人间的代表披上了一件神学的外衣统治着人类，“君权神授”，上帝只将权力授予君主一人，而不应该再有其他什么人掌握国家权力，君主集立法、行政、司法权于一身，这便是中世纪西方国家政治法律制度的特点。由于中世纪的上述特点，“三权分立”与制衡理论没有在西方国家得到应用，更不可能在统治阶级内部进行深入的理论研究。
三、西欧资产阶级革命最早产生于17、18世纪，以荷兰资产阶级革命为先导，英国、法国、美国以及德国等西欧主要大国相继开展了反对封建专制主义的斗争，资产阶级以自然法学说为指导，提出了“天赋人权”、“契约自由”等一系列理论。“三权分立”和制衡理论作为这些理论的具体内容，在这一时期成为了资产阶级的制宪原则和与封建贵族斗争的思想武器之一。但由于资产阶级势力在各个国家存在着一定的差别，所以“三权分立”与制衡理论也在各个国家呈现出不同的形式和内容。
1、17世纪中叶暴发的英国资产阶级革命，是人类历史上一次重大革命，它标志着世界近代史的开端。“三权分立”和制衡理论在这一时期得到了初步的运用和发展，但由于英国资产阶级革命具有妥协性和不彻底性，所以他们所提出的“三权分立”和制衡理论是资产阶级与封建贵族之间妥协的一种产物。
在英国，当时资产阶级进行革命时，它的力量很薄弱，封建势力依然强大，从封建地主阶级中演化出来的新的封建贵族，他们一方面鼓吹改革旧的封建法律制度，另一方面又害怕资产阶级否定和推翻已有的体制，所以新的封建贵族成为了资产阶级革命的障碍和主要对象。在资产阶级与贵族之间的斗争中，英国资产阶级表现出软弱的一面，他们始终不能把资产阶级革命完整地、彻底地进行下去。正是在这样的历史背景下，英国资产阶级思想家、自由主义的奠基人洛克提出了“三权分立”的主张，即立法权、行政权、对外权分别由不同的国家机构来掌握，其中行政权由国王（君主）行使，但要根据议会的决定；立法权由民选的议会行使；对外权仍由君主行使。可以看出洛克的“三权分立”实际上是“两权分立”，君主掌握着更加广泛和至关重要的权力，而且洛克的“三权分立”不是资产阶级内部对权力的划分，而是两个不同阶级对权力的分享。它与后来法国和美国资产阶级所实行的“三权分立”在形式上和内容上均有着明显的差别。
2、18世纪法国资产阶级革命是意义异常深远的革命，这场革命是法国社会内部矛盾日益激化的结果，革命的指导思想是：彻底突破封建专制主义藩篱、宣告资产阶级的法学世界观要在法国乃至整个世界取得根本胜利。在这种革命思想的指导下，法国资产阶级对封建专制制度进行了不懈的斗争，其彻底性和不妥协性是英国资产阶级所没有的。法国资产阶级在革命运动中，也涌现出了大批启蒙思想家、学者，如孟德斯鸠、卢梭、百科全书派、摩莱里、马布利和罗伯斯比尔。他们把资产阶级的法律学说发展到了一个新的阶段。#p#分页标题#e#
法国资产阶级取得革命胜利后，他所面临的任务是如何巩固革命胜利果实？如何确立适合资产阶级生产关系的政治法律制度？孟德斯鸠在他的宪政理论中，又提出了“三权分立”的主张，并且进一步提出了互相制约、反对滥用权力，以求实现政治自由的制衡理论。他所主张的“三权分立”是指立法权、行政权、司法权分别独立，分别由立法机关行使立法权、国王行使行政权、法院与陪审官行使司法权。孟德斯鸠的“三权分立”和制衡理论从形式上确立了近代和现代资产阶级“三权分立”和制衡理论的概念，但在内容上仍与近代美国和现代资产阶级国家中所说的“三权分立”和制衡理论有着一定的区别。它在三权的享有上仍保留了封建贵族的一部分势力，仍然给封建制度在国家政体中留了一席之地。与英国相比，只不过是封建贵族的权力要小的多，这与孟德斯鸠主张实行君主立宪政体理论是有一定联系的。
3、18世纪70年代美国的独立战争（美国资产阶级革命）和17、18世纪英、法资产阶级革命不完全一样，它的特点是：第一，革命的矛头和锋芒所向是反对英国的殖民统治和反对民族压迫，争取民族独立和解放。第二，这次革命的性质是资产阶级的民主革命，但其内容主要的不是反封建，这是因为北美殖民地没有经过封建社会发展阶段而直接走上资本主义发展的道路，虽然欧洲殖民主义者带来某些封建残余，但并未构成社会的主要势力。这些特点是英、法资产阶级革命所没有的。
1776年7月4日，北美13个殖民地会议通过了由杰弗逊起草的美国《独立宣言》，宣告与英国脱离，成立共和国。它标志着美国资产阶级革命取得了完全的胜利，美国资产阶级成为独立的联邦共和国的统治阶级。为了实行资产阶级的民主，实现联邦中央政府与各州关系的协调，克服民主共和党人（现在民主党的前身）与联邦党人（现在共和党的前身）的党派之争，美国建国初期的政治家、宪法学家汉密尔顿提出了具有完整意义的“三权分立”和制衡理论。他所主张的“三权分立”仍然是按照孟德斯鸠的方式将三权划分为立法权、行政权和司法权，并且由国会、总统、法院分别独立行使上述三种权力。与英、法资产指导美国作业阶级国家不同的是：三种权力的行使中不存在任何封建贵族的势力，资产阶级是三权的唯一享有者。
为了使资产阶级内部能充分合理的行使“三权”，达到资产阶级内部的自由和平等，汉密尔顿进一步强调了他的制衡理论，他认为，为了防止侵权，必须平衡三个部门的权力，使每一个部门的权力不具有绝对压倒其他部门的优势，使三个部门彼此在权力、力量的对立上形成均势。平衡三个部门的权力就是要削弱议会的权力，加强行政权和司法权，加强司法独立。议会内部设置两院，参议院的地位高于众议院，参议员的资格应有更严格的限制，加强议会内部的自我约束，以削弱议会的地位。
汉密尔顿的“三权分立”和制衡理论，成为当时美国立宪的基本原则之一，也对后来美国政体的确立和发展起了一定的稳定作用。美国现代法制的发展虽然出现了现实主义法学、新自然法学和新分析主义法学等各种法律思潮，但对近代资产阶级提出的“三权分立”和制衡理论都不曾有过任何动摇。
从以上“三权分立”和制衡理论的历史沿革中可以看出，“三权分立”和制衡理论不是在近代西方资产阶级革命中产生的，它有更早的历史渊源和理论根据，只不过是在近代资产阶级革命中得到了不断的发展指导留学生作业与完善。而西方近代资产阶级革命无论从时间上、内容上，还是社会阶级的主要矛盾上，都与中国当时的社会现状存在着本质上的差别。如果说19世纪末20世纪初中国资产阶级能够承担起反帝、反封建的任务，取得资产阶级革命的胜利，那么孙中山所倡导的“五权宪法”和“权能分治”，应该比西方资产阶级所主张的“三权分立”和制衡理论更加完善和科学。
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