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塞拉利昂钻石出口调查
在我们的日常生活中，每个人都着有在这个不断变化的世界中脱颖而出的愿望。不管在一片星球上的居民是否有任何不一样的功能，但所有国家都团结在一起而渴望成功。在国际层面上，成功可以在发展的基础上进行衡量。考虑到这一点，即在全球范围内，一个强大的经济是发展的核心就很容易被大家所接受了。由于在不同的经济环境下，发展已被证明对全球无数的南方国家具有挑战性。从历史上看，全球经济经历了一系列的发展，躁狂和危机（经济不安和欺诈的阶段）期间连续发生金融周期（安隆2008：256）。在1893年循环展开，有人认为最终在1930年所有世界各地国家将引发债务危机（安隆2008：256）。在这个金融崩溃的时代,发展中国家成为无法偿还之前获得贷款,随后恢复到原材料的出口以便进行融资，这会使得经济更加恶化。(哈龙 2008: 256).
Investigating Sierra Leone Diamond Exports
Within the ever changing World the desire to excel remains the one constant factor in daily life. Regardless of any differentiating feature that may be identified amidst the numerous inhabitants of the planet, all nations are united in the longing for success. On the international level, success can be measured on a basis of development. Bearing this in mind, it is a widely accepted notion that a strong economy is central to development on a global scale. Given the varying economic climate, development has proven to be overtly challenging for countless countries of the Global South. Historically the global economy has experienced a series of financial cycles defined by the sequential occurrence of periods of growth, mania (a phase of economic unease and fraud) and crisis (Hanlon 2008: 256). In 1893 a similar cycle commenced, only to end in the 1930s with a debt crisis that was felt by nations all around the World (Hanlon 2008: 256). Within this era of financial ruin, developing countries became incapable of repaying their previously obtained loans and, subsequently reverted to the export of raw materials to finance their deteriorating economies (Hanlon 2008: 264). During this stage of depression the nation of Sierra Leone deviated from its traditional economic structure to focus on the export of the diamonds; a potentially lucrative primary product (Hirsch 2001:28). By 1957, 72% of exports leaving the nation of Sierra Leone were comprised of diamonds (conciliation resources). Regardless of the intentions of the country, the export of diamonds proved to be both socially and financially fatal. As illustrated by the nation of Sierra Leone, resource driven economic relations are detrimental to the development of the exporting regions as they have financed civil war, facilitated dangerous work conditions, and created economic instability amongst the labourers. The financial matters of developing countries should be of concern to all citizens of the Global North due to the fact that what happens within the South has the potential to greatly affect the lives of those living within the developed world. In this way all citizens of planet Earth have a direct connection to economic maturation of developing nations.
Theoretical Backing
The notion that resource driven economic relations are detrimental to the development of exporting regions is supported by the theory of development known as the dependency theory. The dependency theory, also known as the underdevelopment theory, promotes the idea that nations remain within a state of underdevelopment due to the exploitative nature of their economic dealings (Kegley 2009: 142). Furthermore, proponents of the dependency theory assert that the World may be readily divided into distinct districts which pertain to their place within the economy chain (Kegley 2009: 142). This division of society is often termed dualism, and refers to Andre Gunder Frank’s concept of metropolis and satellite structure wherein the metropolis is the capitalist economy which subordinates the satellite communities, resulting in subsistent lifestyles (Gunder Frank 1969: 108). Metropolises serve to greatly deteriorate the economic stability of satellite nations by promoting and enabling the dependency upon the export of non-value added primary products (Gunder Frank 1969: 110).
The ideas portrayed by the underdevelopment theory are highly visibly throughout the World economies and, specifically in Sierra Leone; a country which exemplifies the characteristics of regions dominated by export oriented economies. Within every facet of the nation’s financial system the ideas of the dependency theory ring true. To a great extent the underdeveloped state of the nation can be attributed to the countries reliance upon the export of diamonds (Olsson 2007: 267) which the developed world eagerly consumes. Moreover, the general populous of Sierra Leone can be identified as a satellite of the rebel force metropolis which in turn is a satellite to the metropolis of the global North. Undoubtedly, the philosophies of the development theory effortlessly coincide with the view that resource driven export economies are harmful to national development, and thus the dependency theory is crucial to the exploration of the idea.
Research Analysis
It can be determined that fiscal dealings sustained by the export of primary resources are disadvantageous to national progress and development as they can readily be associated with civil war. There are those who perpetuate the notion that there is no significant association between resources and hostility but this theory is not entirely valid. The occurrence of a plausible correlation between violence and outgoing commodities is highly dependent upon the accessibility or, rather the lootability of the resource at hand (Snyder and Bhavnani 2005). Historically, the civil confrontations which have transpired have been associated with political discontent, but a significant percentage of hostile engagements have originated due to economic and resource related struggles (Knox, Marston and Nash 2010: 425). In fact, within the year 2000, one quarter of all civil conflicts were affiliated with resources, whether they instigated or funded the confrontation (Knox, Marston et al.2010: 425). Further, studies have found that in countries wherein the dominant source of income is the returns received from outgoing primary products, a significant increase in violence may be observed (Snyde and Bhavnani 2005) thus indicating the correlation between civil conflict and resource exporting regions. Additionally, it has been determined that the involvement of resources in instances of conflict serves to extend the duration of the violence (Gilmore, Gleditsch, Lajala and Ketil Rod 2005: 260). The dilemma is that within the resource exporting, violent areas of the globe primary product related conflicts have resulted in corruption (usaid.gov) and have lead to the deterioration of the exporting nation’s formal economy, therefore diminishing the potential for development (Ballentine and Nitzschke 2005: 2). One must bear in mind that the commodities leaving the regions of the Global South are ultimately destined for the developed World. This implies that as resource oriented violence continues exporting districts will fall progressively further behind, from a development stand point, while nations of the Global North, independent of the need to export unfinished goods, will continue to thrive as a result of imported resources. This parasitic economic relationship visibly points out the developmental harm involved with exporting primary resource commodities.
The situation that is created when exporting goods greatly reflects the concepts portrayed by the metropole - satellite idea of dependency theorist. When applying the dependency theory to conflict and North–South economic relations it can be said that the Global North is the metropole that benefits from the incoming resource while South is the satellite that suffers the effects of resource dependency; conflict. In fact, it is often the case that foreign companies benefit from the insecurity of the nations upon which they rely for the resources that sustain their lifestyles (Smillie, Gberic and Hazelton 2000:11) This metropole – satellite theory promoted by dependency theorists is evident all over the World within numerous export oriented economic relations.
In the nation of Sierra Leone, conflict stemming from the export of diamonds has plagued the country for decades, thus identifying the region as a satellite to the metrople of the Global North, as the developed culture benefits at the expense of the underdeveloped society. Within this distinctive area of the World, the rich presence of resources has served to undermine the economy due to the fact that they have been utilized to finance war rather then national monetary development (Smillie, Gberic et al. 2000:8). Rebel forces such as the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) have been developed, some say to confront the Country’s government, but history has indicated that the primary objective is to extract the mineral wealth in order to attain the extensive economic capital present in the soils of the region (Knox, Martson et.al 2010: 427). These resource and economic oriented wars are atypical in the sense that the intention is rarely to win, but rather to perpetuate lucrative violence (Smillie, Gberic Et al. 2000:11). Through the informal export of Sierra Leone’s mineral assets estimates indicate that the RUF has been able to obtain and reinvest 25 to 125 million US dollars annually depending upon the year (Knox, Martson et al. 2010: 427). Comparatively, the nation’s annual legal exports draw a mere 1million dollars (usaid.gov). This gap between licit and illicit earnings clearly depicts the resource based flow of capital and how it is directed towards distraction rather than development. Though highly profitable, the pursuit of economic supremacy by means of civil war is detrimental to the host nation wherein the war is waged. Within Sierra Leone, conflict has resulted in the disintegration of various public institutions such as schools (Hirsch 2001:28) therefore limiting the potential for the production of an educated populace and in doing so, preventing development. Additionally, 75,000 civilians have lost their lives (Smillie, Gberic et al. 2000:8), and approximately half the population has been displaced purely due to resource oriented conflict (Knox, Martson et al. 2010:426-427) creating an unstable environment that is not conducive to development. In contrast, prior to the discovery of diamonds in Sierra Leone, the nation had remained relatively peaceful (Hirsch 2001:95). Also, within this undisturbed state, the region had the potential to create a profitable, sustainable and diversified economy (Cartwright 1978:34). Viewing Sierra Leone from a modern light the country has rapidly deteriorated, positioning it last on the UNDP human development index (Smillie and Gberic et al 2000:8). Undoubtedly, devastating civil war and resource based economies coincide, thus indicating that resource motivated economic interactions are harmful to the exporting nations and their chances for national development.#p#分页标题#e#
The developmental detriment of export oriented economic relations may be further witnessed through the physical risk associated with the developing world’s resource extraction industry. On a global scale, exporting nations remain dependent on the returns from outgoing goods and often, due to the highly competitive global market, efficiency and financial gain become prioritized far above the physical health and safety of the workers (Schwartz 2006:34-39). Within the World’s exporting regions it frequently is the case that labourers work in conditions wherein violence is common (Richards 2001:73), while proper legislation and sanitation remain scarce, thus placing the workers’ physical welfare directly at risk (Vlassenroot and Von Bockstael 2008:43; Schwartz 2006:34). According to the UNDP human development index the wellbeing of the individual must be taken into account when determining a nation’s level of affluence, as the principle of development is the augmentation of the human potential (Anand and Sen 1994:1). Therefore, as nations continue to extract and export goods to the Global North, while systematically exploiting their labourers, national development, as determined by the UNDP, can not be obtained, thus indicating the developmental harm of economic relations pertaining to resource export.
The exploitation of workers within the regions of the Global South, in order to maintain the flow of goods to the North, provides an apparent link between the metropole- satellite model and the international dealings of export oriented economies. While the developed world reaps the benefits of lax health and safety standards, the Global South remains in a perpetuated state of underdevelopment, much in the way that Andre Gunder Frank indicated the metropole would serve to deteriorate the potential of the satellite (Gunder Frank 1969:110).
Within Sierra Leone and other comparable nations the probability of development diminishes along with the well being of the country’s populace as per the stipulations of the UNDP development index. The citizens involved in the extraction of the nation’s mineral wealth live and work in overtly dangerous conditions. Of the existing companies in the country’s boarders a significant proportion may be identified as low-grade institutions which are willing to risk their reputation in the pursuit of profit (Smillie, Gberic Et al. 2000:14) and, thus they remain uncommitted to neither the mined region nor its inhabitants (Richards 2001:71). In reality, it is commonly the case that diamond mining corporations operating in Sierra Leone are non-licensed, informal organizations bent on retrieving the prosperity of the land at any extent (Vlassenroot and Bockstael 2008:43). This is significant because amongst these precariously managed establishments few regulations exist to ensure the health and safety of the labourers, and of those laws which have been formulated, a miniscule proportion are enforced (Smillie, Gberic et al 2000:14). If laws were to be imposed it is the rebel groups who enforce them, thus habitually exposing the miners to ruthless violence (Richards 2001:73). Those with the authority to police act hastily and aggressively when dealing with matters concerning diamonds, regularly exacting beatings upon the individual in question (Richards 2001:73). Further, the lack of formal laws endorses the descent of the diamond mining regions into exceedingly hazardous and unhealthy circumstances which have frequently been identified as the worst experienced within the nation (Richards 2001:73). The conditions in which Sierra Leone’s diamond miners work is commonly void of proper sanitation and health precautions (Goreux 2001:5). Disease remains common amongst the workers as they toil in stagnant, contaminated water which promotes diseases such as malaria and diarrhea (Schwartz 2006:34). The World Diamond Council states that funds stemming from the diamond industry have allowed for approximately 5 million people world wide to have access to healthcare (diamondfacts). Though this may be a valid statement, the council only identifies one constituency wherein the labourers are the recipients of the alleged health services. Moreover, though aiding 5 million people is highly significant, it pales in comparison to the 80 to 100 million people globally who are reliant upon the hazardous resource extraction industry to sustain their survival (Geroux 2001:4). Companies prefer not to utilize the incoming finances to the benefit of the workers as expenditures of that nature do not lead directly to an increase in profit (Snyder and Bhavnani 2005). The evident lack of concern for the health and safety of the workers indicates that the sole purpose of resource export economies is to draw out the economic benefit. The regrettable derivative of ravenous methods of resource extraction is the inadvertent subordination of the miners to the companies, thus reducing them to satellites of the corporate metropole. As the public well being is readily deteriorated by the labour practices which they are exposed to it can be stated that, according to the UNDP development index, valid national development cannot be achieved due to the limitation of human potential. Undeniably, resource based economic relations are detrimental to the development of the exporting nation.
The notion that economic relations oriented around the export of resources are disadvantageous to development can be further substantiated by the fact that those employed by the industry consequently become economically unstable. Research has indicated that the metropoles of export economies thrive due to the absence of monetary laws which, in their nonexistence, permit corporate corruption (Goreux 2001:5). Ultimately this illegitimacy manifests itself as unjust compensation for the labourers resulting in their financial volatility (Gareux 2001:5). Much of the wealth associated with the respective exported resource is diverted to profit seeking institutions affiliated with the Global North while only a fraction remains in the community from where the resource came (Conciliation Resources). This redirected flow of capital formulates a system akin to the dualist society described by the proponents of the dependency theory. In and of itself the labour force becomes a satellite to the individuals for whom it works, thus allowing for the perpetuation of exploitation and financial insecurity. In a state of such economic uncertainty national development is an unfeasible goal as the social cost of the majority far outweighs the economic advantage experienced by the few beneficiaries (Schwartz 2006:40).
The developmental disadvantages experienced by resource export economies are highly discernible within Sierra Leone wherein the finances of the diamond miners are far from stable. As is often the case, labourers migrate to the diamond mining sector to remedy their financial follies, desiring to reap the benefits of a significant find but rarely is this dream realized (Richards 2001:71). Further, miners receive no more then 10% of the profits collected from the minerals which they unearth (Fofana 2008:16) frequently working for less than a dollar per day (Vlassenroot and Bockstael 2008:29). Some institutions even go so far as to sell the extracted minerals for a portion of the authentic value so as to decrease the outflow of currency to the labourers, only to recover the remaining worth at a later date for their own benefit (Fofana 2008:16). This economic illegitimacy has served to generate a dual society wherein class differentiation and elitism exist (Schwartz 2006:33). The presence of segregation places the society in position of economic instability wherein the civilians find themselves consumed by inescapable debt (Goreux 2001:11) thus deteriorating the viability of nationwide progress. Adding to the developmental barriers is the fact that the economic system serves to deplete the national skilled labourer force that would be crucial to the development of the region if and when the mineral wealth dissipates (Schwartz 2006:34). Furthermore, in order to facilitate the diamond industry all other industries, including those native to the region, are pushed aside (Schwartz 2006:34). Specifically, in Sierra Leone the agricultural sector, which once had the potential to carry the country’s economy (Goreux 2001), now receives approximately 1% of the nation’s funding (Fofana 2008:16), while the nutrient levels of farmer’s fields have greatly diminished rendering them unfertile (usaid.gov). By favouring the diamond industry the government of Sierra Leone has made participation in all other fields an unviable option thus promoting the participation in the corrupt and destabilizing resource export sector. The diamond Area Community development fund was formulated to aid in the mitigation of developmental struggles, but despite the organizations positive intentions a mere 0.0075% of the diamond export tariff is reinvested in the mined region (Fofana 2008:16). Also, one must not forget that resources may be labelled as economic stimuli whose effects are fleeting (Cartwright 1978:34) and therefore must not be relied upon to aid in the achievement of economic progress. Inarguably, those involved with the resource export industry can not be deemed economically stable. As economic security is fundamental to global advancement it may be determined that economic relations based on the export of resources are detrimental to the progress of the developing nation.
Conclusion
Undeniably, progress may not be achieved by the means of export economies as the formulated relations produce inadequate development fraught with civil war, hazardous work conditions, and economic instability. Within such economic systems dependency is rampant amongst all facets of the commodity chain resulting in a dualist society wherein the powerful prosper due to the suffering of the meagre. Despite the challenges and inequality that plague those in the pursuit of progress, the desire to excel still remains prevalent among the nations of the World. To achieve sustainable development on the global scale export economies must#p#分页标题#e#
discover ulterior means to their desired ends in order to bring peace, safety and stability to their nations, thus furthering the collective national potential.
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