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I. Introduction
With the reforms and development in all walks of life and the carrying out of the opening policies to the outside world and the strengthening of exchange in culture between China and other countries in recent years, more and more people have realized that the aim of foreign language learning is for communication and the traditional grammar-translation method of foreign language teaching has been found unable to keep pace with the times. This has given rise to many new thoughts and concepts of it. The objective of oral English teaching is to cultivate learners' communicative competence so that learners will communicate appropriately and successfully according to the target language’s rules and customs. As a result, the communicative approach is being more and more widely used in Chinese middle school English classrooms. The application of it is based on the view that English should be taught as a communicative tool, not merely a kind of knowledge of language. In China, as one of the four important communication acts, speaking has long been neglected, while oral English has always been a weak point in English teaching. It is neglected at the elementary and secondary stage. At the advanced stage, courses concerned with oral English are set up only for English majors. However, the social requirement for English learners’ speaking ability is continually increasing, the theory of education is developing and the research on oral English is deepening, so in this case, it is urgent and necessary for us to research into the ways to improve students' oral ability.
On January 3rd, 2004, the Ministry of Education issued a notice concerning the distribution of Teaching Requirements for College English Curriculum. The Requirements, two main shifts are highlighted, namely, the shift of the focus of the teaching syllabus from reading to listening and speaking; and the shift of the teaching model from teacher-centered one into individualized, student-centered one. However, the current oral English teaching practice in China is far from optimistic. There exist many limitations such as lack of class hours, deficiency of authentic language environment, and particularly exam-oriented teaching and learning style etc. Undoubtedly, all these factors contribute to the common tongue-tied phenomenon among Chinese students. The paper endeavors to seek for the possible solutions to the present situation by exploring the non-intellective factors in oral English learning of middle school students.
In the foreign language education in the past, people paid more attention to the development of the intelligence of the middle school students and fostering their abilities, but neglected to develop their non-intellective factors and utilized their non-intellective factors in the education activities. The effect of non-intellective factors on the activity of language teaching and learning is also neglected. The latter half of the twentieth century has witnessed a shift in interest in foreign language teaching research from teachers’ teaching to students’ learning, since researchers have realized that the teaching materials and methods are only external causes, which become operative only through internal causes (the learner himself) in the acquisition of knowledge and communicative competence in a foreign language. Now we should know that the intellective factors are the abilities of acquiring, digesting, and transforming knowledge, but the non-intellective factors such as motives, emotions and willpower, play roles of motive force, orientation, encouragement and intensity. Only by combining intellective with non-intellective factors perfectly, the quality of oral English teaching and learning would be improved continuously. However, it is a very difficult job. How can we manage it? This is the very subject I am to deal with here in my thesis, some issues related to oral English teaching and learning in Chinese middle schools are to be discussed in the following three parts. It involves studying the background, analyzing the causes and putting forward strategies.
II. Background Study
2.1 Current Situation of English Teaching in China
China is in the process of drastic social change. With its entry into WTO and the globalization in the world, restructuring is the buzzword in China. In this context, English is expected to play an important role, since English is always associated with internationalization, not only in education, but also in society at large.
Traditionally, the teaching of English in China is dominated by a teacher-centered, book-centered, grammar-translation method and an emphasis on rote memory. These traditional teaching approaches have resulted in a number of typical learning styles in China. And these teaching and learning styles all neglect the importance of oral English and the students’ non-intellective factors in English learning. A change in the English education is the introduction of English into the primary education— not as a subject in its own right, but as part of education for international understanding. This may lead to better performance in English, but it may also reinforce exam-bound education, since English is an important subject for entrance exams to higher schools.
The revised national syllabus and the Ministry of Education makes it clear that oral communication is to be the main focus. At higher schools in China, communicative-oriented teaching has become so common that there have been a growing number of students who are no longer overwhelmed by such teaching when they go up to higher schools. However communication and communicative language teaching are ambiguous terms and it is often unclear what is intended methodologically. Many Chinese teachers, administrators, textbook writers seem to interpret communicative language teaching as a stimulus for using as much target language and doing as much oral work and as little grammar as possible. The result is that new textbooks are short of grammar, examples but full of dialogues and activities.
Some teachers worry that there is a decline in accuracy— especially in the academic streams at high schools. Others express the fear that such communicative lessons are often reduced to the rote memorization of set phrases. Students, when asked to respond orally often produce fixed and memorized patterns of utterances and do not create sentences of their own. Younger teachers tend to approve of this kind of communicative teaching. Those having a good command of English think this is the way English should be taught in school as well. Older teachers tend to see communicative teaching as less academic, requiring less serious effort of students. Most students seem to enjoy classes using these techniques, although a few of the more academically oriented students find communicative activities undemanding and tend to work on them less seriously. The positive contribution of communicative teaching is to redress the balance between teaching and learning. It also changes the Chinese view of learning. Traditionally, learning is hard and is often deemed as mental discipline. Communicative method suggests that learning can be enjoyable and efficient at the same time. It pays more attention to students and takes students’ non-intellective factors into consideration.
2.2 The Introduction of Non-intellective Factors into Oral English Study of Middle School Students
Just as the name implies, non-intellective factor comes from intellective factor, which is usually called Intelligence Quotient (IQ). Generally, the intellective factors are considered to consist of six aspects, which are: attention, observation, imagination, remembrance, thought and creativity. With the development of psychology in early 20th century, non-intellective factor has been used. In 1935 Alexander.W.P, the American psychologist, put forward the concept of non-intellective factor for the first time in his Intelligence, concrete and abstract. Both the intellective factors and the non-intellective factors constitute the intellective system. Non-intellective factors refer to the feeling, purpose, interest, character, need, motivation, ambition and faith, which have no direct relations with knowledge. The non-intellective factors in learning contain lots of aspects, such as: temperament and character, interest and motivation, self-esteem and confidence and so on.
All these non-intellective factors have great effects to be reckoned with in the development of students. A learner who has a high intelligence quotient may not make great achievement if his non-intellective factors have not been developed well. While, on the other hand, a student with well developed non-intellective factors and normal intelligence quotient may get success in his study.
III.The Causes for Students’ Poor Oral English
The purpose of English teaching in Chinese schools is to improve the students’ skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing, on the basis of necessary phonetics, large vocabulary and good grammar. But this is not the final purpose. The final purpose is to let students be able to use the language. Why do we study English? If a student is only good at reading and writing, can we say that he is good at the language? No, if a student is good at English, he should be able to use the language, both in writing and speaking. Now most of the students do better in reading English than in speaking it. They can read and write, but they can hardly communicate. They can hardly express themselves with their own words. This is partially because of our examination system, and partially of the teaching method. We are not able to change the examination system, but we can improve our teaching method. Most of the teachers like to provide the students with a lot of knowledge— words, phrases, grammar, usage and so on. They focus on these things, especially on grammar. Yes, the students do need these, but many teachers forget to take the students’ non-intellective factors into consideration. So it is necessary for us to analyze the non-intellective reasons for Chinese students’ poor oral English.#p#分页标题#e#
3.1 Internal Causes
3.1.1 Introvert Character
The traditional language teaching approaches have resulted in a number of typical learning styles in China, with introverted learning being one of them. In China, most students consider knowledge as something to be transmitted by the teacher rather than discovered by the learners. Their motivation of learning has been destroyed. They, therefore, find it normal to engage in modes of learning which are teacher-centered and in which they receive knowledge rather than interpret it. Chinese students are often quiet, shy and reticent in oral English classrooms. They dislike public touch and overt displays of opinions or emotions, indicating a reserve that is the hallmark of introverts. Chinese students name “listening to teacher” as their most frequent activity in school English classes. And both teachers and students neglect the individualities of students.
The teacher-centered classroom teaching in our country also leads to a closure-oriented style for most students. “These closure-oriented students dislike ambiguity, uncertainty or fuzziness.” (周瑾珍, 2004: 450-451) To avoid these, they will sometimes jump to hasty conclusions about grammar rules or reading themes. Many students are less autonomous, more dependent on authority figures and more obedient and conforming to rules and deadlines. They do not have the consciousness and courage to challenge the authority. Chinese students insist that the teacher be the authority and are disturbed if this does not happen. They often want rapid and constant correction from the teacher and do not feel comfortable with multiple correct answers. That is why students are reluctant to “stand up” by expressing their views or raising questions, particularly if this might be perceived as expressing public disagreement.
3.1.2 Lack of Interest
Famous Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget said, “All aspects of intellectual work should depend on interest.” Interest is the tremendous impetus of the intelligence activities, is one of the psychological factors for people who are carrying out activities of learning. Interest is more effective than intellect in the promotion of learning for middle school students.
Albert Einstein once said, “Interest is the best teacher.” To improve the quality of English teaching, we must help students to eliminate the psychological barriers of learning English, stimulate and maintain their interest in learning English. At the beginning of learning English, students with high enthusiasm, scoring well, but not long after that, perceptiveness, attention, memory, language, imitation, reading and listening acception, speaking and writing expression were not in the same level, a large number of students gradually feel that learning English is difficulty, and they lose confidence, even without abandoning school. Therefore, English teaching should follow the law of language teaching. Combining characteristics of physical with psychological development of students, adopting a lively and diverse forms of teaching methods, thus to stimulate and maintain the interest of students learning English. What can arouse and keep students' learning interest is to make them have a sense of achievement. Therefore, parents and teachers should pay attention to discovering: cultivate children’s interest, rather than stifle or discourage their interest.
3.1.3 Unclear Purpose
Perhaps the most popular learning style originated from the traditional book-centered and grammar-translation method is analytic. In most of classes, for instance, the students read new words aloud, imitating the teacher. The teacher explains the entire text sentence by sentence, analyzes many of the more difficult grammar structures, rhetoric, and style for the students who are listening, taking notes and answering questions. “Facts state that the Chinese students are often detail- oriented and precision-oriented, showing some features of the analytic style.” (Ma junming, 1987: 51-57) They have no trouble picking out significant detail from a welter of background items and prefer language learning strategies that involve dissecting and logically analyzing the given material, searching for contrasts, and finding cause-effect relationship. This kind of teaching and learning style has limited students’ initiative of practicing and also their speaking ability.
The other Chinese preferred style is following rules. Students with such a learning style are likely to follow the teacher's guidelines to the letter, to be focused on the presence, and demand full information. They prefer language learning materials and techniques that involve combinations of sound, movement, sight, and touch and that can be applied in a concrete, sequential, linear manner. Experts discovered that Chinese students are concrete-sequential learners, who use a variety of strategies such as memorization, planning, analysis, sequenced repetition, detailed outlines and lists, structured review and a search for perfection. Many students also like concrete-sequential, and this might be a sign of a following-rules learning. This kind of learning also destroys students’ dynamic of speaking.
3.1.4 Mode of Imagery Thinking
Another characteristic Chinese learning style is visual learning. In an investigation of sensory learning preferences, experts found that Chinese students are visual learners. They like to read and obtain a great deal of visual stimulation. For them, lectures, conversations and oral directions without any visual backup are very confusing and can be anxiety-producing. It is obvious that such visual learning style stems from a traditional classroom teaching in China, where most teachers emphasize learning through reading and tend to pour a great deal of information on the blackboard. Students, on the other hand, sit in rows facing the blackboard and the teacher. Any production of the target language by students is in choral reading or in closely controlled teacher-students interaction. Thus, the perceptual channels are strongly visual (text and blackboard), with most auditory input closely tied to the written. And the students are not given enough chance to speak out their own opinions and also they do not have the opportunities to improve their oral English.
Closely related to analytic and visual styles are the thinking-oriented and reflective styles. According to some investigations, Chinese students are in general more overtly thinking-oriented than feeling oriented. They typically base judgment on logic and analysis rather than on feelings of others, the emotional climate and interpersonal values. Compared with American students, Chinese students show greater reflection, as shown by the concern for precision and for not taking quick risk in conversation. Quite typical is that the Chinese student who wants time to arrive at the correct answer and is uncomfortable when making guess. The feature of being afraid of failure leads to the poor oral ability of Chinese students.
It is worth noting that the generalizations made above about learning styles in China do not apply to every representative of all students; many individual exceptions of course exist. Nevertheless, these seemingly stereotypical descriptions do have a basis in scientific observation. And we can make teaching strategies based on these patterns of teaching.
3.2 External Causes
3.2.1 Social Factor
In the steady development period of English teaching in China, there have been great progresses in the past twenty years. For example the state formulated a series of educational policies, which are favorable for English teaching. And the government drew up the unified national syllabus. Most of normal schools’ foreign language departments have cultivated large number of high quality teachers, most of them are loving and respecting the teaching job, and making contributions to China’s junior high school foreign language education. The whole society has clearly known the importance of English learning. In the face of the current situation, China’s junior high school foreign language teaching needs to further improve in the flowing aspects,
construction of the teaching staff. The quantity and quality of teachers still as a key factor has restricted China’s English teaching in middle school. That is to say apart from constantly improving personal language skills, middle school English teachers must strengthen the study of and research on English teaching methods.
2. The construction of teaching material, to draw up the implementation of “one-syllabus multi-kind textbooks”. China is a big country with a vast area of land and varied resources. English education in China also varies from place to place. One set of teaching material can not satisfy all the different teaching needs in different locations. However, it can not leave up to free competition and the principle of survival of the fittest, either. The central government should formulate a set of uniformed standard of English level and encourage the variation of teaching material.
3.2.2 Family Factor
As red flowers need green leaves to match them, school education also needs the enhancement of home tutoring. And only with the combination of school education in the lead and home schooling in support can students’ physiology, mentality, talents and virtues be comprehensively developed and quality education realized. Middle school students are at the special stage of growth in all aspects, so their parents as the mainstay of family education, are particularly important in the process of helping students learn better. CPC Central Committee in the third national conference on education, specifically pointed out that school education, social and family education, as three main education forms are equally important in the historical mission of complete quality education. To face the new requirements for talents of the new century, the parents pay more attention to their children’s English learning, so even without English courses offered in the school, they also send their children to offer-school English classes, no matter whether their children are interested or not. It is a big problem how to help students love to learn English, know how to learn English, and learn to use English.#p#分页标题#e#
3.2.3 School Factor
Teaching is not only the process of imparting knowledge, also the process of emotional exchanges between teachers and students. Teachers should first overcome their anxieties and alleviate the tense atmosphere in the classroom with friendly tone of voice, humorous lectures and lively expressions. It will also help to relax students and ease their nervous and embarrassed mood. Most of students have no opportunity of assessing their self-expression, self-learning ability when they are outside the classroom. Sporadic knowledge could be series of vivid dialogue, those materials are the source of psychological development and language drills for students, and also are the most effect for students who need to learn overcoming the “deaf-mute in”.
IV. Strategies to Improve Students’ Oral English
From the descriptions and scientifically observed data reviewed above, it is legitimate to conclude that there exist identifiable learning styles for most Chinese students. We can assume, therefore, that any English speaker engaged in teaching English to Chinese students is likely to confront a teaching-learning style conflict. Such style differences between students and teachers consistently and negatively affect student grades. It is when students' learning styles are matched with appropriate approaches in teaching that their motivation, initiative and achievements will increase can be enhanced.
Oral English involves a lot of interactions of speakers’ and listeners’, and therefore the spoken language cannot truly be “taught”. Students learn to speak by doing it successfully. Conversely, they become inarticulate and inept when their oral English experiences are unsuccessfully or constrained. Learning of oral English is closely related to students’ non-intellective factors, and we believe the teacher should focus attention on those factors and make the class a place where the teacher and the student can be matched well. In the following part I will give some strategies of how teacher’s teaching can be matched with students’ style in Chinese settings. I obtained these ideas from several sources, including descriptions in books and published articles and my own learning experience.
4.1 Self-fostered Strategies
4.1.1 Self-esteem and Confidence Strategies
“Self-esteem and confidence are very important factors in students’ progress at school. A learner who is generally confident and who has high self-esteem is more likely to ask questions, participate actively, express their ideas and take on new challenges.” (Zoltan, 2005: 130-131) They are also better able to learn from mistakes, handle constructive criticism and to generally push themselves harder in learning. Conversely when a student’s self-esteem is low they are more likely to be negative, withdraw and experience failure more often.
How can teachers be sure that students will be responsible for their education? Succeeding in school, getting along with peers all depend on self-confidence. Without it, student's talents may not be developed, as they may be afraid to take risks or be creative. Research shows that a positive self-concept is more important to academic success than a high IQ score. Students will have greater self-esteem if they feel a sense of ownership and responsibility for their experiences. The following are two suggestions to follow for fostering self-esteem:
Giving Encouragement. Teachers should not delay their satisfaction of students’ efforts and improvements. Pay attention to every little progress each student made, especially towards those who are slow in their learning. Show appreciation of students’ hard work and progress they made either by praising them in front of the whole class or through written comments in their homework. Focus on students’ assets and strengths and encourage self-appreciation. If some poorer-attainment students read a word correctly or answered questions voluntarily we should ask the whole class to applaud them.
Another way that can be used to build students' confidence is to make them aware that making mistakes can be a learning experience. Tell students that making mistakes doesn't mean they are stupid, but that they are learning, and then ask them to bear those in mind when they lack courage to put up their hands and answer questions. Teachers should also tell the students that it is the courage of those who are not afraid of losing face that helps the whole class to find out more problems with their learning.
4.1.2 Motivation and Interest-related Strategies
“Motivation is a kind of mentality and psychological process which arouse students to learn and indicate the study. Motivation consists of choice of action, active participation on learners’ part, maintain of interest and retain of effort. Motivating strategies aim at stimulating learners’ interest, encouraging learners’ enthusiasm, maximizing learners’ participation, and maintaining learners’ effort.” (陈鹏, 2005: 55) Keen enthusiasm and active participation is the insurance of effective instruction. The new curriculum for the teaching of English requires that students should be encouraged to discover by themselves about the language. As a result of teacher-centered teaching, most of the students were very dependent in their learning. Students got answers easily from the teacher or from other students, and then they easily left them behind. Everything seemed to be becoming clear in class, but everything seemed to be confusing after class. To help the students to take more initiative we suggest teachers try the question-answering way in their learning. Requiring them to work out their own questions and then try to solve these questions by themselves before we discussed the so-called ‘best’ answers together as a class. By doing this, students’ initiation can be aroused.
It is commonly perceived that motivation is a crucial factor that influences learners in foreign language learning. It should be pointed out that there is another important factor which functions together with motivation, which is interest. The more interesting the learning activity is, the more students will get involved in it. The first time a teacher meets his students, he should try in some way to get to know about their interests so that he may find some interesting topics for discussion, and so that the students may feel that the teacher is interested in each of them which allows for a better relationship between the teacher and the students to be established. This may be done by asking each individual to make a short talk or by designing a questionnaire, in which one can get some detailed information about each student's likes and dislikes in their life, their attitude towards certain social problems, and their problems in study and life, etc. It seems that the latter is a better choice because in this way one can keep the answers for a long time and refer to them whenever there is a need.
In English curriculum, the other basic learning strategies are to build up imagination between the words and the corresponding things or objects. By making good use of their capability of imagination, students can have a better understanding of the target language, and teachers can create a more interesting situation for them, in which they can experience many interesting and unusual things that they do not have a chance to experience in the real world. Therefore, English learning becomes more enjoyable to them and their interest to learn and desire to participate in the learning activities will be increased. Furthermore, they will have more language input and more opportunities to practice the target language.
4.2 Supplementary Strategies
4.2.1 Temperament and Character Supplementary Strategies
Students’ achievements do not only depend their ability, but also on their temperament. “Temperament is a kind of psychological feature that reflects people’s intensity, speed, stability and flexibility when they are thinking and acting.” (陈鹏, 2003: 124) Students respond to academic assignments differently. Some like novelty and are task-oriented and are not easily distracted. They quickly moderate their activity level, settle down well, and are persistent. Other students are bothered by newness, take a long time to “get into” an assignment, and while persistent, they often need help in getting started. Still others who are difficult to be settled down are easily distracted, and give up quickly. Impulsive, quick-acting students often rush through assignments, leading to careless mistakes. These differences in behavior styles affect students’ approaches to learning tasks, and they contribute to their performance and achievement.
In foreign language teaching, only when teachers know students well can they find the best way to teach. Knowing learners’ characteristics and instincts in foreign language learning makes effective teaching possible. In a class made up of students with various styles and strategies, it is always helpful for the teacher to divide the students into groups by their characters and give them activities based on their temperament. This should appeal to them because they will enjoy them and be successful. For example, the group made up of the extroverted may need the chance to express some ideas orally in the presence of one or many class members. On the other hand, the group made up of the introverted may need some encouragement to share ideas aloud and may want the safety of jotting down a few notes first and perhaps sharing with one other person before being invited or expected to participate in a group discussion.
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In addition to trying temperament-alike groups for greatest efficiency, the teacher can also use temperament-varied groups for generating greatest flexibility of styles and behaviors. Teachers should avoid grouping introverts with each other all the time. It is often helpful to include open students and closure-oriented students in the same group; the former will make learning of oral English livelier and more fun, while the latter will ensure that the task is done on time and in good order. Thus the introverted students can get help from each other and be spurred by those extroverted ones.
4.2.2 Learning Styles Supplementary Strategies
Good study habit is an important link in learning English. Once good study habits are formed in English learning, students will always be in the active mode, and then formed a virtuous circle. Therefore, the teachers need to be strict with students at the beginning, and guide the students to cultivate the habit of norms habit, the habit of reading extracurricular and then thinking and speaking.
Scientific method is a bridge to success, successful teaching should first look into the learning of students, so that students could master the correct learning methods as soon as possible, develop good study habits. Only students learn how to learn, then good at learning, and students can play the enthusiasm and creativity, and thus improve learning efficiency and speed up the learning process, so as to enhance teaching effectiveness. In oral English teaching, teachers in a planned and systematic manner on English prep method, thinking method, etc., so that students gradually grasp these methods can be self-learning so as to enhance learning.
V. Conclusion
English language has always been the key in bringing everyone closer globally. It has always been the major communication medium throughout the world. International doctrines, laws, agreements, concepts, global concerns, etc are being established, agreed upon and put into writing in English as a standard foundation. To be able to cope in a “global” environment, one is required to at least possess basic English proficiency skills in order to remain in the global picture. Oral English is the greatest use of language and is the basis of communication— in fact it is the basis of English literacy. Through listening and speaking students learn about themselves and about the world. Learning to express their thoughts, ideas and feelings, and being able to respond to the communications of others, enables students to participate in society successfully. However, speaking ability is so far the most hesitant part of English learning. Oral English development in school does not mean teaching children to speak so much as providing them with the skills and opportunities to communicate more effectively. Speech involves thinking, knowledge and skills. Effective communication is developed through practice and training. There is no doubt that there is plenty of oral language used in the classroom. However, in the course of delivering the classroom program, much of that “talking” is done by the teacher, rather than by the students. Facts indicate that the development of language has a close relationship to students’ non-intellective factors. One of the most effective ways to facilitate the learning of oral language skills is to take into account the non-intellective factors of the students such as their temperament, their confidence and their interest. (Benson, 2005: 11-12)
To act as facilitators of student learning, teachers need to use a process in which students are given the opportunity and encouragement to speak and explore their own thinking. Teachers should:
Establish strategies to manage all forms of communication to ensure students of different kinds of temperament have fair and equitable opportunities to develop their interpersonal speaking skills, for example group discussions.
Encourage students to bring their ideas and background knowledge into class learning activities. And give the freedom to make mistakes. Help students to develop the courage to be imperfect and not to be defeated by mistakes.
Provide opportunities for speaking, discussion, and expression of ideas, experiences and opinions across the whole curriculum. This will involve a range of experiences in which the size and type of audience, the situation and purpose will all vary, and arouse students’ interest and motivation.
The goal of oral English teaching is not only to get students to speak and share their thinking but also to have them learn and develop through speech. As students’ language skills develop, classroom “talk” and discussion can be directed towards the goals of exploring ideas and in the subsequent development of English and deepening of knowledge.
Having analyzed the importance of oral English course, the students’ conditions, the reasons for Chinese students’ poor oral English and given some strategies for oral English teaching, it may be concluded that non-intellective factors played a very important role in oral English learning. In order to teach oral English well, teachers of English need to pay more attention to students’ non-intellective factors. And qualified teachers must have a full understanding of their students’ temperament, confidence and interest. By this way, both teachers and students are sure to succeed in oral English classes.
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